© 2004 by the Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia
Digization was based on a photocopy (of the copy of the book held by University of Virginia Library).
UNESCO collection of representative works: Chinese series.
Han Fei Tzŭ's name also in Chinese on title page.
"The biography of Han Fei Tzŭ, by Ssŭ-ma Ch'ien": v. 1, p. [xxvii]-xxix.
The present work is the
first translation of the complete writings of Han Fei Tzŭinto a Western
language. It is based on the best Chinese text and commentaries, Wang
Hsien-shen's The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzŭwith
Collected Commentaries
Textual Criticisms of Han Fei Tzŭ's
Works
Wang Hsien-shen completed his monumental work in
1895. Its block-printed copies did not come off the press in Changsha, the
great scholar's native city, till over one year later. Though the text is not
punctuated like all the texts of other Chinese classics, I have found no
misprint. Nowadays it is apparently out of print, while rare copies may be
still procurable in big libraries and old book stores. The reprint of Wang's
work by the Commercial Press, Shanghai, with movable types, contains not more
than a dozen of misprints in the whole book. Yet it is regrettable that the
marks of punctuation, which they added with a view to increasing the
Wuhan University Quarterly Journal of Liberal
Arts,
As it is necessary in the translation to acquaint the
reader with the author's life and times as well as the history of the text in
the original, I have prefixed to the author's Works The
Biography of Han Fei Tzŭ, by Ssŭ-ma Ch`ien, Wang
Hsien-ch`ien's Preface to "The Complete Works of Han Fei
Tzŭwith Collected Commentaries", and Wang Hsien-shen's own
Foreword to "The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzŭ with
Collected Commentaries", which altogether can make a general introduction,
brief but clear. My methodological introduction is meant to clarify the main
problems, principles, and methods of translation.
On the completion of this work, I should acknowledge my thanks to Dr. M. S. Bates and Mr. Li Siao-yen for the criticisms and suggestions they have given me on all available occasions, and to the Libraries of the University of Nanking, the Institute of Chinese Cultural Studies, and the University of Hong Kong for the facilities they have afforded me, as well as to Dr. Neville Whymant, formerly of the London School of Oriental Studies, for helpful comments, and Mr. Arthur Probsthain for his congenial interest in promoting the present work and enabling its publication to materialize. I am also indebted to my wife who has carefully gone over the whole translation and inspired my perseverance in many painstaking efforts which the author since centuries ago has imposed upon anybody attempting to translate his writings into any alien tongue.
W. K. Liao. Hong Kong,
April, 1939.
I
The need and value of
translation, indeed, appears whenever there is an inter-cultural contact. So
did it appear when Buddhism, along with Hindu culture, was coming to China, and
such was the case during the Græco-Roman days. Cicero was puzzled by the
problems of translation, and many a scholar has ever since attempted to solve
the same problems. Confronted by the same, if not greater, difficulties, the
present translator hopes that a few remarks here on matters of translation may
not be out of place.
As the Chinese language is far more concise and less
precise than English, writers of both languages, though able to write lucidly
in either tongue, are somehow or other at a loss when asked, How should each be
rendered into the other? In this connection it is well remarked by Dr.
Duyvendak in the Preface to his own translation of The Book
of Lord Shang, that "a translation is a The Book of Lord Shang translated? To such natural
questions Duyvendak did not expound his answers, but only added that "a
translation into a Western language acquires therefore more clearness and
preciseness of expression than the original possesses, as Chinese characters
have a far
The first great achievement in the study of the
problems, principles, and methods of translation was in 1790 when A. F. Tytler
read before the Royal Society his papers on Translation, which were soon
afterwards published. Thus in his Principles of
Translation he prescribed three golden rules:—
I. A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.
II. The style and manner of writing in a translation should be of the same character as that of the original.
III. A translation should have the ease of the original composition.
The serviceability of these as guiding principles to subsequent scholars and the difficulties for every translator to reach such levels are beyond any doubt. Nevertheless, in correspondence to them, there were preached and practised by Yen Fu (1866-1921) three famous principles, Faithfulness, Elegance, and Proficiency, throughout his translations of English books into Chinese. So far in the art of translating English into Chinese, he has excelled everybody and has been surpassed by none.
On account of both technical requirements and
Again, I have endeavoured to assimilate the style and manner of writing in the translation to that of the original. Take for example parallelism, which is a peculiar characteristic of the style and manner of Chinese writing. For illustration, Han Fei Tzŭsaid, "the literati by means of letters disturb laws; the cavaliers by means of weapons transgress prohibitions." To preserve the native colour in cases like this, I have kept repetitions in wording and balances in expression close to the original, provided they do not appear tiresome; otherwise, I have shortened them. On the contrary, the Chinese language very often admits of such brevity of expression as can not be successfully imitated in the English; wherefore to achieve perfect transfusion of the sense in such cases, I have found it necessary to sacrifice the imitation of style. On significant occasions, however, even matters of rhyme and rhythm have been taken into consideration.
As regards idioms, there are a number in the original
to which I have found no corresponding idiom in English. In case a literal
translation appears to be confusing, the sense is expressed in plain and easy
English. Likewise, whenever the English way of expression is more concise in
wording
In short, I have taken for the guiding principle of the present translation the retention of Chinese native colour within the limits of intelligibility to an average English reader.
II
So much above for the art of translating—translating
words, phrases, and clauses. To me, however, translation can be science, as
well as art. And it ought to be science when we come to the translation of
sentences. This leads us to the logical methodology of translation. With such a
new methodological problem in the foreground, I have, therefore, since the
beginning of this work, thought of disclosing possibilities, if any, of
applying logical principles to the translation of one language into another, as
for
It is a truism that however different and numerous languages may be, the thought behind any language can be expressed in all of them equally well, provided that the thinker can skilfully command all the different systems of vocal gestures. It is practically the same as to say that one melody applies equally well to all different languages. What judgments are to thinking, so are melodies to feeling. Though single words of different languages may have different units of thought which they represent, yet every judgment laid down by reasoning always has its quantity and quality, regardless of the language it chooses for expression; just as the same melody, whether sung in Chinese or English, has its unique time and notes. Translation, therefore, is a restatement of thought in a different tongue with sentences rather than words as its basic units.
As judgments expressed in language make propositions,
it is possible to make a logical analysis of every sentence of any language and
then restate it in the appropriate form of a proposition and finally put it in
the symbolic form of a judgment. When the judgment is thus determined, the
original proposition in Chinese can be accordingly rendered into English. And,
if the English rendering expresses the same unit of thought quantitatively and
qualitatively, the translation, however grammatically and idiomatically
different
However, just as judgments differ from suspicions, so do propositions differ from questions. Yet certain types of questions customarily used are rhetorical and are more frequently found in Chinese than in English—such questions as, for instance, "Is it possible to rescue a misgoverned state from going to ruin?" or "How could it be justified to confer honours on loafers and demand services from warriors?" Inasmuch as such questions are suspicions in word but judgments in thought, in many cases my rendering chooses the form of propositions instead of questions.
As regards the three accepted types of propositions,
they are as a rule interchangeable, since the categorical proposition is the
origin of the hypothetical and alternative propositions. In the case of a
categorical proposition, if the writing in the English rendering of the
original sentence appears to be awkward or not intelligible to English readers,
it ought to be advisable to apply the doctrines of opposition and eduction and
see if the writing of the immediate inference from the original proposition is
elegant in style and proficient in composition. For instance, there are in
Chinese found such expressions as, "Man never fails to have father and mother,"
which implies "Everybody has parents". Now, compared with the former, which is
the transfusion of the meaning of the original, the latter, which is the
transfusion of an immediate inference of the original, certainly sounds elegant
and proficient, without losing any portion of the original thought. Likewise,
it is possible to express the substance of the original, which is a categorical
proposition
Furthermore, in classical Chinese writing, judgments
are very often expressed in hypothetical propositions, which the
English-speaking people customarily prefer to express either in alternative or
in categorical propositions. For instance, the saying, "Whoever advocates
strict legalism, if not executed by public authorities, is infallibly
assassinated by private swordsmen," is hypothetical, and can be restated in an
alternative proposition, "Every advocate of strict legalism is either executed
by public authorities or assassinated by private swordsmen." Of these two modes
of expression, the latter seemingly sounds more idiomatically English than the
former, while the sense remains the same. Another kind of hypothetical
proposition, such as, for example, "When peace reigns, the state feeds loafers;
once an emergency comes, she uses warriors," is the Chinese way of expression;
but the equivalent categorical proposition, "In time of peace loafers are
supported; in case of emergency warriors are employed," sounds far more
The last, but by no means the least, important point
Such being the case, it is evident that translation
is as closely allied with psychology and logic as with grammar and rhetoric and
its objective is basically concerned with thought rather than with word. In as
much as most readers of Han Fei Tzŭ's writings have been primarily
interested in his thought since his days, the present translation with the aid
of logic and psychology devotes more attention to the author's philosophical,
than to his etymological,
III
Turning to the contents of the translation, I have
found it necessary to divide each essay into paragraphs and, in a number of
works, add descriptive sub-titles with a view to facilitating the reading of
the text. Matters of historical and textual criticisms, which in many cases
have been briefly taken up in the notes, are mostly derived from the works done
by eminent commentators; while the annotations and elucidations are based on my
judgment of their usefulness to the collation of the translation with the
original. Matters of authenticity have been remarked in the notes frequently,
In the transliteration of the Chinese names I have
largely followed Giles's system with slight variations that I have found
necessary in the interests of distinction and convenience. Thus, I have
purposely differentiated "Chow"
In regard to the author's citations from other books, I have either translated them directly from the respective Chinese texts or availed myself of the translations accomplished by such Western Sinologues as James Legge, H. A. Giles, etc., to whom I have acknowledged my indebtedness in the notes, despite my occasional differences from them. My translation thus done has accepted every writing by Han Fei Tzŭ, whether genuine or spurious, as it has been preserved through all catastrophes since antiquity.
IV
The present translation is throughout my own, in both
method and substance, although I have used for reference certain partial
translations and sketchy quotations in English
The first ambitious attempt at translating Han Fei
Tzŭ into a Western language appeared in Russian (1912) by Ivanov. The
work was a partial translation. To my regret, I am unable to read it and
appreciate the translator's mastery of the Chinese original. Nevertheless, Paul
Pelliot's review of the work in the Journal Asiatique
(Septembre-Octobre, 1913) has afforded me a vivid glimpse of the whole
accomplishment. According to Pelliot, "Confusion de noms, prononciations
inacceptables, références insuffisantes, dates donnée d'après les commentateurs
chinois sans équivalents européens, ce sont là autant de défauts auxquels un
peu d'effort eût aisément remédié" (pp. 422-3). "Je ne puis me défendre,"
continues Pelliot further, "quoique à regret, de dire que la sinologie attend
de M. Ivanov autre chose. Son livre serait très honorable pour un amateur qui,
loin de toute bibliothèque, voudrait donner à des compatriotes un aperçu d'un
système chinois. Mais M. Ivanov est un technicien. . . ." (p. 423). In short,
the translation presents "un première ébauche" of Han Fei Tzŭ's thought
but can hardly acquaint the reader with its substance.
In The Development of the Logical
Method in Ancient China which appeared in 1917, Hu Shih rendered into
English all his citations from the works of Han Fei Tzŭ. On the whole,
his translations were proficient in composition as well as faithful to the
author's ideas; but, in most cases, he employed modern idiomatic English at the
expense of the original style.
Alfred Forke's translation of the passages he quoted
from Geschichte der Alten Chinesischen Philosophie (1927) is
an excellent reinterpretation of the author's ideas in the German language. On
certain points, however, I have had to disagree with his rendering. It is very
evident that if he never misread the Chinese original, he must have used the
text of an edition quite different from the one I have used.
In the same year, 1927, appeared Henri Maspero's
La Chine antique which contains a concise summary of Han
Fei Tzŭ's teachings. Therein are found very accurate translations of a
few passages, which I have read with great appreciation.
K. C. Wu's Ancient Chinese
Political Theories (1928) also contains one chapter on Han Fei Tzŭ,
in which a number of passages were rendered into English. His translations on
the whole appear more suggestive than accurate.
Dr. J. J. L. Duyvendak, in the introduction to his
English translation of The Book of Lord Shang (1928),
also translated some fragmentary passages from Han Fei Tzŭ. Though he
attempted in this scholarly work to be as accurate as possible, yet by his
style of writing an average reader can hardly know whether he intended to
preserve the original character of the text or to assimilate the manner of
idiomatic English.
In 1930, came out L. T. Chen's English translation of
Liang Ch`i-ch`ao's History of Chinese Political Thought
during the Early Tsin Period. Herein his translation of passages from Han
Fei Tzŭjust as that of Liang's whole book abounds with omissions,
inaccuracies, and
Last year appeared Derk Bodde's English rendering of
Fung Yu-lan's History of Chinese Philosophy: The Period of
the Philosophers, whose manuscript the author is alleged to have read and
approved. It is a well-earned shih
shu
Brief History of Early
Chinese Philosophy (1914) by Dr. T. Suzuki presents English readers a
sketch of ancient Chinese thought, Bodde's English rendering of Fung's work
certainly expands an elaborate panorama before them. In this connection I am
projecting a ray of hope that some day when a History of
Chinese Philosophy by some other Chinese scholar appears comparable to
Windelband's Geschichte der Philosophie, there will be
some other sinologue in the English-speaking countries attempting to make his
translation of the work from the Chinese as exquisite as Tufts' translation of
Windelband's work from the German.
V
The present translation of Han Fei Tzŭ's works has been worked out principally in view of the author's philosophy in general and political and legal thought in particular. Though etymological problems are not ignored at all, yet I have always seen to it that attention to words does not lead to distraction from thought. It is the author's thought that I have intended to restate intelligibly in English, but it is the Chinese native colour that I have expected to preserve as faithfully as possible. Between the horns of this dilemma I have groped towards the realization of this work.
Han Fei was one of the princes of
the Han State. He was fond of studies in penology, epistemology, law, and
Solitary Indignation, Five Vermin, Inner and Outer
Congeries of Sayings, Collected Persuasions, Difficulties in the Way of
Persuasion, which altogether covered upwards of one hundred thousand
words. Though Han Fei knew very well the difficulties of persuasion, wherefore
his work on the difficulties in the way of persuasion was very
Vide infra,
chap. xii. Here I have purposely omitted Ssŭ-ma Ch`ien's citation of Han
Fei Tzŭ's "Difficulties in the Way of Persuasion".
Someone had introduced his Works in Ch`in. Reading
the Works, Solitary Indignation and Five Vermin, the King of Ch`in exclaimed: "Lo! Only if I,
the King, can meet the author and become friendly with him, I would not regret
my death thereafter." "These are Works of Han Fei," remarked Li Ssŭ.
Therefore, Ch`in launched an attack upon Han. At
first, the King of Han did not take Fei into service. When the emergency came,
he sent Fei as a good-will envoy to Ch`in. The King of Ch`in liked him. Yet
before he had confidence in him and took him into service, Li Ssŭ and Yao
Ku did an ill office to him. Before the Throne, they slandered him, saying:
"Han Fei is one of the princes of the Han State. As Your Majesty is now
thinking of conquering the feudal lords, Fei will in the long run work for Han
and not for b.c.). . . .
Han Fei lived at the time
when the weakened State of Han was facing an imminent danger. On account of his
remoteness in kinship to the ruling house, he could not advance his career and
join governmental service. Witnessing the vices of the itinerants and
diplomatists, who beguiled the lords of men and thereby sought for their own
advantages, and the evils of the wicked and villainous people, who committed
violence and outrage at their own pleasure and could not be suppressed, he
bitterly criticized administrators of state affairs for their inability to
exercise the powers vested in them, enforce penal laws definitely, forbid
wicked deeds decisively, purge the government and the country from corruptions,
and scheme for peace and order. He took the fate of the country as his own and
pointed out the obstacles in its way. As there was left no chance for him to
reform the surroundings, he wrote laboriously and thereby clarified his
proposed remedies. Therefore, in thought he was vehement and in word
informative, thus differentiating himself sharply from the rest of the thinkers
and writers of the Era of the Warring States (403-222 B.C.).
After reading his literary remains in the present age
and inferring therefrom the political trends of his times,
Han Fei's ideas and principles, no doubt, involve biases and bigotries. Yet his teaching that law should be made clear and penalty should be made strict to save all lives out of chaos, purge All-under-Heaven from calamities, prevent the strong from oppressing the weak, the many from transgressing the few, and enable the aged and infirm to live a happy ending and the young and the orphan to grow up to their best, is an emphasis on the utility of the legal code and on the propriety of severity and leniency, which in motive and purpose does not differ from Mencius's advice how to utilize ease and leisure and clarify the rules of political and penal administration.
After his theory had failed to take effect in Han,
the legalism enforced by Ch`in happened to be identical with
His writings altogether cover twenty books. Hitherto
few of the commentaries have succeeded in elucidating the whole text. It is not
until my younger cousin, Hsien-shen, has collected all the commentaries,
corrected the errors, supplied the hiatuses, and discussed the meanings and
The Tao of the
Sovereign and its following Works were most probably written during the
lifetime of the author. The First Interview with the King of
Ch`in and others at the opening of the text were subsequently added. In
these memorials Fei attempted to persuade the Ruler of Ch`in not to ruin Han
and thereby schemed for the preservation of the ancestral shrines of his
people. His plan was extremely unique, wherefore every gentleman sees the more
reason to sympathize with his patriotic cause.
Old Man of the Sunflower Garden,
Wang Hsien-ch`ien. Twelfth Month, Winter, 22nd Year of Kuang-hsü
(January, 1897).
The Works of Han Fei
Tzŭin the remote past had Yin Chi-chang's Commentary
Records of Arts and Letters in the History of T`ang.
Commentary has been lost long before. During the Yüan
Dynasty (a.d. 1279-1367) Ho Huan said that Li Tsan's
Commentary
a.d. 1165-1173)
a.d.
960-1279) bears no name of the editor. Nobody has as yet disclosed the
anonymity. All the T`ai-p`ing Imperial
Library,
Literary Works on Facts and Varieties,
Classical Selections for Beginners,
As regards these early commentaries, they do not
completely cover the whole works of the author, and,
The
Complete Works of Han Fei Tzŭwith Collected Commentaries, in which
the author's text is largely based on the Ch`ien-tao edition whose errors are
corrected and hiatuses are supplied in accordance with the contents of other
editions.
Wang Hsien-shen. Changsha,
First Winter Month, 21st Year of Kuang-hsü (November, 1895).
Thy servant has heard: "Who knows not but speaks, is not wise. Who knows but speaks not, is not loyal. Any minister, if not loyal, must be condemned to death. If what he speaks be not true, he must be condemned to death, too." However, thy servant begs to speak all he has heard and entreats Your Majesty to convict him of whatever crime.
Thy servant has heard, All-under-Heaven
b.c.
At present, the treasuries and armouries of the
allies are not full; their granaries
Now Ch`in issues verbal commands and written orders
and carries out rewards and punishments accordingly, both men of merit and of
no merit are clearly distinguished
In these days, Ch`in has a territory, which, if the
wider places are cut off to fill up the narrower places, extends over several
thousand square li, plus a famous army counting by
However, of late, so dull are her weapons and
armour growing, so ill are her gentry and commoners becoming, so scanty are her
savings and hoardings become, so fallow are her fields and arable lands
resting, so empty are her granaries and storehouses, that her neighbouring
feudal lords do not obey her and the title of Hegemonic Ruler
b.c.) it
was used as the style of a ruler first successful in foreign conquests and
later capable of respecting the authorities of the Son of Heaven and protecting
the rights of weaker and smaller states. The English renderings by Giles and
Dubs, therefore, seem to suit the connotation of the term of this period better
than Mei's. During the Era of the Warring States (b.c.), however, any
feudal lord who could emerge to be the strongest among all paid no respect to
the central authorities and gave no protection to any weaker and smaller State.
What he aimed at was the complete
Thy servant dares to speak:—
In times gone by, Ch`i in the south routed Ching,
in the east routed Sung, in the west subdued Ch`in, in the north routed Yen,
and in the centre put Han and Wey to use. Thus, with vast territory and strong
soldiers she won in warfare and took in attack, thus becoming able to enforce
her edicts and decrees throughout All-under-Heaven. Of Ch`i, the limpid Chi
Stream and the muddy Yellow River sufficed to make boundaries; the long walls
and the large dikes
b.c., the 31st year of King Nan of Chou, when
General Yo Yi of Yen crushed the entire forces of Ch`i
Besides, thy servant
b.c., the 37th year of King Nan of Chou, when
General Pai Ch`i of Ch`in crushed the entire forces of Ch`u.b.c., the
beginning year of the Era of the Warring States, were sometime called "Three
Chins".
Another time,
b.c., the 42nd year of King Nan, the 34th year of King
Chao of Ch`in.b.c.) of Ch`in.
In the days of old, Marquis Hsiang,
b.c. by King Chao of Ch`in.
The Chao Clan, indeed, holds the central state
inhabited by heterogeneous populations. Their people are frivolous
b.c.Schemes of
the Warring States has #### in place of ####.b.c.
Indeed, Chao doomed to ruin did not go to ruin;
Ch`in deserving Hegemony did not attain Hegemony. This was the first reason why
All-under-Heaven came to penetrate the ability of Ch`in's state counsellors.
Again, when Ch`in marched out all her officers and soldiers to launch a fresh
attack upon Han-tan, her men failed to take that city, threw away their armour
and
b.c.
Besides, thy servant has heard the saying: "Be
alarmed and trembling and act more carefully day after day. If thou act
carefully in due manner, thou mayest hold Historical
Records has #### in place of ####.b.c. A rather detailed narration of the whole event is
found in Chap. X.
In these days, Ch`in has a territory, which, if the
wider
Han Fei
Tzŭ's Memorial to the King of Ch`in
"Han has served Ch`in for upwards of thirty years.
To Ch`in she has formed a shielding barrier in case of war and made a restful
carpet in time of peace. Thus, whenever Ch`in sends out crack troops to conquer
new territory and Han
"Further, since Han pays tribute and renders
services to Ch`in, she does not differ from a district or county of Ch`in. Of
late, however, thy servant has in secret heard of the scheme of Your Majesty's
ministers to raise an army to invade Han. Verily it is the Chaos that have been
recruiting officers and soldiers and supporting the advocates of the
Perpendicular Union with a view to uniting the troops of All-under-Heaven. And,
with the clear understanding that unless Ch`in be weakened, the feudal lords
would eventually see their ancestral shrines ruined, they plan to turn west and
accomplish their task. This is not such a scheme as could be devised in the
brief space of one day. Now supposing
"Verily Han is a small country. To stand the
pressure by All-under-Heaven from the four directions, the sovereign has to
bear disgrace and the ministers have to undergo hardships, high and low having
thus for years shared griefs with each other in mending garrisons, in making
provision against strong foes, in keeping hoardings and savings, and in
building walls and moats, in order to solidify their defence works. Therefore,
though Ch`in starts invading Han now, she may be unable to take her in a year.
Should Ch`in
"Indeed, if Ch`in on going forward to raid Chao
cannot take and on turning backward to attack Han cannot win, her troops,
however invulnerable, will become tired of field operations abroad and her
transport corps will fall short of supplies
"Now, it is the stupid suggestion of thy humble
servant to send an envoy to Ching and, by bribing the ministers in charge of
her state affairs with precious presents, convince them of the reasons why Chao
has been conspiring against Ch`in, and at the same time send a hostage to Wey
to make her feel at ease, and then
"Hence the saying: `Weapons are dangerous
implements, and should not be employed at random.' For illustration, Ch`in in
vying with Chao has to challenge Ch`i and
"The turning-point
Li Ssŭ's Memorial to the
King of Ch`in
:—
"Under His Majesty's edict the memorial submitted
by the envoy from Han, in which he maintained that Han should not be taken, was
handed down to thy servant, Ssŭ. Thy servant, Ssŭ,
"What stomach and heart diseases are to man, that
is Han to Ch`in. The man having stomach and heart diseases ordinarily only
feels like standing in the mud which is sticky and cannot be brushed off; but
as soon as he starts running b.c. under the command of Lord Hsin-ling of Wey the
allied forces of Chao, Ch`u, Han, Wey, and Yen defeated the Ch`in invaders and
drove them as far back as the Pass of the Armour Gorge.
"Fei came here most probably with the intention to
elevate
"Now thy servant has devised a stupid scheme as
follows: Suppose Ch`in sends out troops without announcing the object of the
expedition. Then the ministers in charge of Han's state affairs will consider
serving Ch`in a good policy. Then thy servant will ask for Your Majesty's
permission to interview the King of Han and make him come to visit Your
Majesty. When he comes, Your Majesty retains him and never sends him away, but,
instead, summons a few important ministers
Ch`in accordingly sent Ssŭ to the court of Han. Li Ssŭ went to interview the King of Han, but could not have an audience of him. Therefore he sent in a memorial saying:—
"Of old, when Ch`in and Han combined their forces
and united their purposes to refrain from invading each other,
b.c.li. Thanks to the traditional policy she has pursued
from generation to generation to serve Ch`in,
"Another time, however, when the five feudal lords
launched a joint-attack upon Ch`in, Han in her turn joined them and stood at
the front of the allied line to meet the forces of Ch`in beneath the Pass of
the Armour Gorge.
b.c.b.c. General Pai Ch`i captured the capital of
Ching.
"Thus, ever since Han turned against Ch`in, the country has been oppressed, her territory invaded, and her army weakened, till the present day. The reason therefor is: Her rulers have been listening to the flippant theories of wicked ministers but have never considered actual conditions. Even if the wicked ministers be put to death, it would be impossible for Han to recover her former strength.
"At present, Chao is massing officers and soldiers
"Formerly, when Wey was about to despatch troops to
attack Han, Ch`in ordered guards to escort her good-will envoys to Han.
"Now supposing Your Majesty executed thy servant in
Han, it would not do Your Majesty any good. Moreover, since Your Majesty turns
no ear to thy servant's counsels, there will be fostered the seed of
catastrophes. For once Ch`in marches her troops out without stopping, Han will
then feel concern for the safety of her Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain.
After thy servant, Ssŭ, has had his corpse exposed in the market-place in
the capital of Han, though Your Majesty might begin to think about thy
servant's stupid but loyal counsels, it would be impossible to prevent
disaster. After the frontiers have been raided and only the defence work of the
capital is held and when the sounds of drums and bells are filling
"Moreover, though the limits of Han's military
strength are generally known throughout the world, she is now betraying Ch`in.
Indeed, if cities are evacuated and troops defeated, rebels among the rear
forces will infallibly raid the capital. When the capital falls, the civilians
will scatter. When the civilians scatter, no more troops can be recruited. Even
though the capital might be well defended, yet Ch`in would send out all her men
to besiege the only city of Your Majesty. When its communication with the
outside world is cut off, it will be impossible to accomplish any scheme, till
the situation becomes unsavable. As the consideration of the whole situation by
the chamberlains is not thorough,
"If what thy servant, Ssŭ, has said contains anything that does not coincide with actual facts, may Your Majesty allow him to complete his memorial before the throne! After that it will not be too late to put him to death through official censure. The King of Ch`in neither indulges in drinking and eating nor amuses himself with travelling and sight-seeing, but is whole-heartedly scheming against Chao. Therefore he has sent thy servant, Ssŭ, here to speak on his behalf. Thy servant has petitioned for a personal interview because he feels he must parley with Your Majesty on matters of urgent importance.
"Now, if Your Majesty grants no audience to thy servant, the faith of Han never will be proved. Verily Ch`in will cease the campaign against Chao and move the army against Han. May Your Majesty, therefore, kindly ponder over the matter again and again and grant thy servant a definite answer?"
Thy servant,
Fei, is by no means diffident of speaking. As to why he has to hesitate in
speaking: if his speeches are compliant and harmonious, magnificent and
orderly, he is then regarded as ostentatious and insincere; if his speeches are
sincere and courteous, straightforward and careful, he is then regarded as
awkward and unsystematic; if his speeches are widely cited and subtly composed,
frequently illustrated and continuously analogized, he is then regarded as
empty and unpractical; if his speeches summarize minute points and present
general ideas, being thus plain and concise, he is then regarded as simple and
not discerning; if his speeches are very personally observing and
Books of Poetry
and History from time to time and act on the teachings of the former
sages, he is then regarded as a book chantor.
Therefore, weights and measures, however accurate,
are not always adopted; doctrines and principles, however perfect, are not
always practised. Should His Majesty
For example, Tzŭ-hsü
b.c. In 511 b.c. he
successfully persuaded King Ho-lü of Wu to invade Ch`u and thereby avenged his
father and brother. Following the death of King Ho-lü he served King Fu-ch`a.
In 494 b.c. he helped the young king wage a
victorious war of revenge with King Kou-chien of Yüeh. Subsequently, because of
Pai P`i's slanders against him, he was ordered by King Fu-ch`a to commit
suicide with the famous Shu-lou sword (484 b.c.).b.c. As Hsiao-pai entered the capital first and ascended
the throne, Duke Chuang of Lu, who had been supporting Prince Chiu, suddenly
changed his mind, killed the prince, and sent Kuan Chung in a prisoner cart to
Ch`i. In Ch`i he was released by Hsiao-pai, then Duke Huan, and appointed Prime
Minister.
In remote antiquity, when T`ang
Thus, just as King Wên attempted to persuade Chow
and was put in jail,
b.c.).Historical
Records has #### in place of ####.
Furthermore, I-wu was bound with chains. Ts`ao Ch`i
b.c. he waged a successful war with Wey, during
which P`ang Chüan was killed in ambush.b.c. he sought refuge in the
Ch`u State and was appointed Prime Minister by King Cho. Despite all the
meritorious services he had rendered to the country, he was dismembered by his
political enemies upon the king's death in 381 b.c.b.c. As soon as he was entrusted by Duke Hsiao in
359 b.c. with all state affairs, he began to enforce
his legalism. He enriched the state and strengthened the army and caused Wey
many humiliating defeats till King Hui regretted with a sigh that he had not
taken Kung-shu Tso's advice.b.c. during the uprising caused by Prince Pai
Shêng.b.c.b.c.
These tens of men
Then, why could these worthies and sages escape
death penalties and evade disgrace? It was because of the difficulty
Favourite vassals, if too intimate with the ruler,
would cause him personal danger. Ministers, if too powerful, would overturn the
august position of the sovereign. Wives and concubines, if without distinction
of rank, would cause legitimate sons dangers. Brothers, if not subservient to
the ruler, would endanger the Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain.
Thy servant has heard: "The ruler of one thousand
chariots, if not on his guard, would find close by him vassals of one hundred
chariots aiming to shake his authority
Nothing is more valuable than the royal person,
more honourable than the throne, more powerful than the authority of the
sovereign, and more august than the position of the ruler. These four
excellences are not obtained from outside nor secured from anybody else, but
are deliberated in the ruler's own mind and acquired thereby. Hence the saying:
"The lord of men, if unable to exercise his
Of old, the ruin of Chow and the fall of Chou were
both due to the territorial expansion of the feudal lords; the partition of
Chin
b.c. by the Chao, Han, and Wey Clans.b.c. by the T`ien Clan.
For this reason, the intelligent ruler, in keeping
officials in service, exhausts their abilities with laws and corrects their
errors with measures. Hence no release from the death penalty, no remission of
punishment. Both release from the death penalty and remission of punishment,
being called "authority-losing"
Therefore, no minister, however large his bounty
may be, should be allowed to include
For the same reason, no minister should be allowed to have a four-horsed chariot as personal escort nor should he be allowed to carry any kind of weapons. If anyone, being neither a public courier nor a herald of urgent messages, transport implements of war from place to place, he should be condemned to death without mercy. This is the way the intelligent ruler should provide against accidents.
Tao is the
beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so,
the intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of
everything,
Hence the saying: "The ruler must not reveal his
wants. For, if he reveals his wants, the ministers will polish their manners
accordingly. The ruler must not reveal his views. For, if he reveals his views,
the ministers will display their hues differently." Hence another saying: "If
the like and hate of the ruler be concealed, the true hearts of the ministers
will be revealed. If the experience and wisdom of the ruler be discarded, the
ministers will take precautions." Accordingly, the ruler, wise as he is, should
not bother but let everything find its proper place; worthy as he is, should
not be self-assumed but observe closely the ministers' motivating factors of
conduct; and, courageous as he is, should not be enraged but let every minister
display his prowess. So, leave the ruler's wisdom, then you will find the
ministers' intelligence; leave the ruler's worthiness, then you will find the
ministers' merits; and leave the ruler's courage, then you will find the
ministers' strength. In such cases, ministers will attend to their duties,
magistrates
Hence the saying: "So quiet, it rests without
footing; so vacant, it cannot be located." Thus, the intelligent ruler does
nothing, but his ministers tremble all the more. It is the Tao of the
intelligent ruler that he makes the wise men exhaust their mental energy and
makes his decisions thereby without being himself at his wits' end; that he
makes the worthy men exert their talents and appoints them to office
accordingly without being himself at the end of his ability; and that in case
of merits the ruler gains the renown and in case of demerit the ministers face
the blame so that the ruler is never at the end of his reputation. Therefore,
the ruler, even though not worthy, becomes the master of the worthies; and,
even though not wise, becomes the corrector of the wise men. It is the
ministers who do the toil; it is the ruler who gets the spoil. This is the
everlasting principle of the worthy sovereign.
Tao exists in invisibility; its function, in
Keep your decision and identify it with the words
and deeds of your subordinates. Cautiously take the handles
Vide
infra, Chap. VII.
For these reasons, the lord of men always has to
face five kinds of delusion: delusion by ministers impeding the sovereign,
delusion by ministers controlling public resources and revenues, delusion by
ministers issuing decrees at random, delusion by ministers distributing
personal favours,
The Tao of the lord of men regards tranquillity and
humility as treasures. Without handling anything himself, he can tell
skilfulness from unskilfulness; without his own concerns of mind, he can tell
good from bad luck. Therefore, without uttering any word himself, he finds a
good reply given; without exerting his own effort,
For this reason, the intelligent ruler, in
bestowing rewards, is as benign as the seasonable rain that the masses profit
by his graces; in inflicting punishments, he is so terrific like the loud
thunder that even divines and sages cannot atone for their crimes. Thus the
intelligent ruler neglects no reward and remits no punishment. For, if reward
is neglected, ministers of merit will relax their duties; if punishment is
remitted, villainous ministers will become liable to
No country is permanently strong. Nor is any country permanently weak. If conformers to law are strong, the country is strong; if conformers to law are weak, the country is weak.
King Chuang of Ching annexed as many states as
b.c.b.c. Wey with Ch`in and Ch`u attacked
Yen. In 257 b.c. Lord Hsin-ling of Wey smashed the
forces of Ch`in at Han-tan and thereby rescued Chao.
Thus, as long as King Chuang of Ching and Duke Huan
of Ch`i were alive, Ching and Ch`i could remain hegemonic; as long as King
Hsiang of Yen and King An-li of Wey were alive, Yen and Wey remained strong.
Now their countries all fell into decay, because their ministers and
magistrates all followed the path to chaos and never sought
Therefore, at present, any ruler able to expel
private crookedness and uphold public law, finds the people safe and the state
in order; and any ruler able to expunge private action and act on public law,
finds his army strong and his enemy weak. So, find
Now supposing promotions were made because of mere
reputations, then ministers would be estranged from the sovereign and all
officials would associate for treasonable purposes. Supposing officials were
appointed on account of their partisanship, then the people would strive to
cultivate friendships and never seek employment in accordance with the law.
Thus, if the government lack able men, the state will fall into confusion. If
rewards are bestowed according to mere reputation, and punishments are
inflicted according to mere defamation, then men who love rewards and hate
punishments will discard the law
For such reasons, loyal ministers, innocent as they are, are always facing danger and the death penalty, whereas wicked ministers, though of no merit, always enjoy security and prosperity. Should loyal ministers meet danger and death without committing any crime, good ministers would withdraw. Should wicked ministers enjoy security and prosperity without rendering any meritorious service, villainous ministers would advance. This is the beginning of decay.
Were such the case, all officials would discard
legalism, practising favouritism and despising public law. They would frequent
the gates of the residences of cunning men, but never once would they visit the
court of the sovereign. For one hundred times they would ponder the interests
of private families, but never once would they scheme for the state welfare of
the sovereign. Thus, their subordinates, however numerous, are not for
glorifying the ruler; the officials, however well selected, are not for serving
the country. If so, the sovereign would have the mere name of the lord of men
but in reality he simply commits himself to the care of the houses of the
various ministers. Hence thy servant says: "The court of a decaying state has
no man."
That the court has no man does not imply the
emptiness of the court. It means that private families strive to benefit one
another but never seek to enhance the state welfare; that high officials strive
to honour one another but never seek to honour the ruler; and that petty
officials spend their salaries in cultivating personal friendships but never
attend to their official duties. The reason therefore is: The sovereign never
makes his decisions in accordance with the law but always trusts in his
subordinates for
Therefore, the intelligent sovereign makes the law select men and makes no arbitrary promotion himself. He makes the law measure merits and makes no arbitrary regulation himself. In consequence, able men cannot be obscured, bad characters cannot be disguised; falsely praised fellows cannot be advanced, wrongly defamed people cannot be degraded. Accordingly, between ruler and minister distinction becomes clear and order is attained. Thus it suffices only if the sovereign can scrutinize laws.
The wise man, on ministering to a ruler, faces the
north
Han Fei Tzŭ's Utopia, however, runs in
parallel to the ideal state of nature described by Lao Tzŭ:—
The Li Ki,
Bk. VII, Sect. i, 2.)
Tao Teh
King, lxxx.)
Now, those who make light of rank and bounties,
resign from their offices and desert their posts with ease, and thereby choose
their masters, thy servant does not call upright. Those who falsify theories,
disobey laws, defy the sovereign, and make forcible remonstrances, thy servant
does not call loyal. Those who bestow favours, distribute profits, win the
hearts of inferiors, and thereby make names, thy servant does not call
benevolent. Those who leave the world, retire from active life, and thereby
reprove the sovereign, thy servant does not call righteous. Those who serve
abroad as envoys to other feudal lords, exhaust the strength of the native
country, and wait for the moment of crisis
The law of the early kings said: "Every minister
shall not exercise his authority nor shall he scheme for his own advantage but
shall follow His Majesty's instructions. He shall not do evil but shall follow
His Majesty's path."
Great Plan contains a passage somewhat different from
this citation.
Indeed, the lord of men, if he has to inspect all
officials himself, finds the day not long enough and his energy not great
enough. Moreover, if the superior uses his eyes, the inferior ornaments his
looks; if the superior uses his ears, the inferior ornaments his voice; and, if
the superior uses his mind, the inferior twists his sentences. Regarding these
three faculties as insufficient, the early kings left aside their own talents
and relied on laws and numbers and acted carefully on the principles of reward
and punishment. Thus, what the early kings did was to the purpose of political
order. Their laws, however simplified, were not violated. Despite the
autocratic rule within the four seas, the cunning could not apply their
fabrications; the deceitful
Indeed, the minister trespasses against the
sovereign in the court as in the lie of the land. Leading forward step by step,
Hence to govern the state by law is to praise the
right and blame the wrong.
Analects.
The law does not fawn on the noble; the string does
not yield to the crooked. Whatever the law applies to, the wise cannot reject
nor can the brave defy. Punishment for fault never skips ministers, reward for
good never misses commoners. Therefore, to correct the faults of the high, to
rebuke the vices of the low, to suppress disorders, to decide against mistakes,
to subdue the arrogant, to straighten the crooked, and to unify the folkways of
the masses, nothing could match the law. To warn
The means
Ministers are afraid of censure and punishment but
fond of encouragement and reward. Therefore, if the lord of men uses the
handles of chastisement and commendation, all ministers will dread his severity
and turn to his liberality. The villainous ministers of the age are different.
To men they hate they would by securing the handle of chastisement from the
sovereign ascribe crimes; on men they love they would by securing the handle of
commendation from the
As illustration, that which enables the tiger to subject the dog, is his claws and fangs. Supposing the tiger cast aside its claws and fangs and let the dog use them, the tiger would in turn be subjected by the dog. The lord of men controls his ministers by means of chastisement and commendation. Now supposing the ruler of men cast aside the handles of chastisement and commendation and let the ministers use them, the ruler would in turn be controlled by the ministers.
Thus, T`ien Ch`ang petitioned for rank and
bounties, which he in his turn conferred upon the body of officials, and
enlarged pecks and bushels, by virtue of which he distributed alms among the
hundred surnames. In other words, Duke Chien lost the handle of commendation,
which T`ien Ch`ang set to use. In the long run Duke Chien
b.c. In the same year Confucius composed the
Spring and Autumn Annals.Historical Records nor elsewhere except here. Granted
that this chapter is not spurious, Han Fei Tzŭmust have derived the
information from some unreliable source of his age.
The lord of men, whenever he wants to suppress
culprits, must see norm accord with name and word never differ from task.
Once in by-gone days, Marquis Chao of Han
b.c. During his reign his premier, Shên Pu-hai,
enforced legalistic policies so successfully that Han emerged to be a rich and
strong country. In the same country Han Fei Tzŭwas born about half a
century later and was therefore greatly influenced by the legalism taught and
practised by Shên Pu-hai (vide infra, Chap.
XLIII).
Thus, when an intelligent ruler keeps ministers in service, no minister is allowed either to override his post and get merits thereby nor to utter any word not equivalent to a fact. Whoever overrides his post is put to death; whoever makes a word not equivalent to a fact is punished. If everyone has to do his official duty, and if whatever he says has to be earnest, then the ministers cannot associate for treasonable purposes.
The lord of men has two difficulties to face: If he
appoints only worthy men to office, ministers will on the pretence of
worthiness attempt to deceive their ruler; if he makes arbitrary promotions of
officials, the state affairs will always be menaced. Similarly, if the lord of
men loves worthiness,
For instance, because the King of Yüeh liked brave
men, the people made light of death; because King Ling of Ch`u liked slender
waists, the country became full of starvelings; because Duke Huan of Ch`i was
by nature jealous and fond of women, Shu Tiao castrated himself in order to
administer the harem; because Duke Huan liked different tastes, Yi-ya steamed
the head of his son and served Duke Huan with the rare taste; because
Tzŭ-k`uai of Yen liked worthies, Tzŭ-chih pretended that he would
not accept the state.
b.c.
purposely abdicated in favour of him, who, however, took the throne with no
reserve.
Therefore, if the ruler reveals his hate, ministers
will conceal their motives; if the ruler reveals his likes, ministers will
pretend to talent; and if the ruler reveals his wants,
That was the reason why Tzŭ-chih, by
pretending to worthiness, usurped the ruler's throne; and why Shu Tiao and
Yi-ya, by complying with their ruler's wants, molested their ruler. Thus
Tzŭ-k`uai died in consequence of a civil war
b.c.vide infra, Chap. X, pp. 89-91).
In these days, if the lord of men neither covers
his feelings nor conceals his motives, and if he lets ministers have a chance
to molest their master, the ministers will have no difficulty in following the
examples of Tzŭ-chih and
Heaven has its destiny
The sceptre should never be shown. For its inner
nature is non-assertion.
China's
Own Critics: A Selection of Essays, 1931), he showed his whole-hearted
support of Han Fei Tzŭ. A few years later, as shown in his book,
My Country and My People (1936), he appeared to be far
more Taoistic and cynical than before, preferring inaction and non-interference
to any kind of remedial work which seems to him laborious but fruitless.
Indeed, everything has its function; every material
has its utility. When everybody works according to his special qualification,
both superior and inferior will not have to do anything. Let roosters herald
the dawn and let cats watch for rats. When everything exercises its special
qualification, the ruler will not have to do anything. If the ruler has to
exert any special skill of his own, it means that affairs are not going right.
If he is conceited and fond of displaying his ability, he will be deceived by
the inferiors. If he is sagacious and lenient,
The way to assume oneness
The way of the sage is to discard his own wisdom
and talent. If his own wisdom and talent are not discarded, it will be hard for
him to keep a constant principle of
Indeed, Tao is so magnificent as to have no form.
Teh is evidently systematic and so extensive as to permeate all lives. When it
functions proportionately, the myriad things are formed,
Hence the saying: "Tao does not identify itself
with anything but itself. Teh does not identify itself with the Yin and the
Yang. The balance does not identify itself with lightness and heaviness. The
inked string does not identify itself with ingress and egress. The reed-organ
Tao is never a pair. Hence it is called one.
Therefore, the intelligent ruler esteems singleness, the characteristic feature
of Tao. Accordingly, ruler and minister do not follow the same path. When the
minister presents any
In general, the right way to listen to the
ministers is to take what they utter as the measure of what they harvest.
To remain empty and tranquil and practise inaction
is the real status of Tao. To compare, refer, and analogize things, is the form
of affairs. Thus you sometime compare them and analogize them to other things
and sometime refer them to and accord them with the condition of emptiness.
When the root and trunk of a tree never change, motion
If the ruler does not share the supreme authority
with the ministers, the people will regard this as a great blessing. The ruler
should never discuss
If the sovereign is not mysterious,
To govern the interior
If the calf is larger than the thigh, it is hard to
run fast.
Any ruler wishing to give peace to the state must
disperse the partisans of powerful ministers. If he does not disperse their
partisans, they will enlarge their parties. Any ruler wishing to maintain order
in his country must adjust the distribution of his gifts. If he does not adjust
the distribution of his gifts, rapacious men will seek for extraordinary
profits. To grant them requests will then be the same as to lend axes to
enemies. It is not right to lend out such things. For they will be used for
assaulting the ruler.
The Yellow Emperor made the saying: "Superior and
inferior wage one hundred battles a day." The inferior conceals his tricks
which he uses in testing the superior; the superior manipulates rules and
measures in splitting the influences of the inferior. Therefore the institution
of rules and measures is the sovereign's treasure, the possession of partisans
and adherents is the minister's treasure. Such being the situation, if the
minister does not murder the ruler, it is because his partisans and adherents
are not yet
To detect culprits inside the court and guard
against crooks outside it, the ruler must personally hold his rules and
measures. Make the powerful wane and the powerless wax. Both waning and waxing
should have limitations. Never allow the people to form juntas and thereby
deceive their superiors with one accord. Make the powerful wane like the moon,
and the powerless wax like the heat of the bored fire. Simplify orders and
dignify censures. Make the application of penal laws definite. Never loosen
your bow; otherwise, you will find two males in one nest. Where there are two
males in one nest, there the fighting will continue at sixes and sevens. When
wolves are in the stable, sheep never will flourish. When two masters are in
one house, nothing can be accomplished. When both man
The ruler of men should often stretch the tree but
never allow its branches to flourish. Luxuriant branches will cover the gates
of public buildings, till private houses become full, public halls empty, and
the sovereign deluded. So, stretch out the tree often but never allow any
branch to grow outward. Any branch that grows outward will molest the position
of the sovereign. Again, stretch out the tree often but never allow any branch
to grow larger than the stem. When the branches are large and the stem is
small, the tree will be unable to endure spring winds. When the tree cannot
endure spring winds, the branches will damage its kernel. Similarly, when
illegitimate sons are many, the heir apparent will have worries and anxieties.
The only way to check them is to stretch out the tree often and never let its
branches flourish. If the tree is stretched out often, partisans and adherents
of the wicked ministers will disperse. When the roots and the stem are dug up,
the tree is no longer alive. Fill up the foaming fountain with mud and never
let the water clear. Search the bosoms of ministers and take away their powers.
The sovereign should exercise such powers himself with the speed of the
lightning and with the dignity of the thunder.
In general there are eight ways whereby ministers
are led
The first is said to be "through the bribery of
sharers of the same bed".
The second is said to be "through the bribery of
en bloc,
The third is said to be "through the entertainment
of uncles and brothers".
The fourth is said to be "through fostering
calamities".
The fifth is said to be "through buying up
vagabonds".
The sixth is said to be "through the employment of
fluent and convincing speakers".
The seventh is said to be "through the arrogation
of authority and strength".
The eighth is said to be "through the accumulation
of support from the four directions".
These eight in general are the ways whereby ministers are led to commit villainy and the sovereigns of the present age are deluded, molested, and deprived of their possessions. Therefore, every sovereign should not fail to study them carefully.
The intelligent ruler, as regards women, may enjoy their beauty but ought not to follow their entreaties and comply with their requests.
As regards those near him, though he enjoys their presence, he must always call their words to account and never let them utter any uncalled-for opinion.
As regards uncles, brothers, and chief vassals, the ruler, on adopting their words, ought to hold them liable to penalties in case of failure and appoint them to office in case of success but never give them any arbitrary promotion.
On seeking pleasures and enjoying curios, the ruler
ought to have a definite personnel in charge of them and allow nobody to bring
such objects in and out at pleasure
In regard to favour-distribution, it ought to be done on the initiative of the ruler to open the emergency treasury and public storehouses and benefit the people. No minister should be allowed to bestow personal favours.
Regarding persuasions and discussions, the ruler must ascertain the abilities of men reputed to be good and testify to the defects of those reputed to be bad, but never allow the ministers to speak to one another about them.
As regards bold and strong men, the ruler should
neither neglect reward for merit on the battle-field nor remit
With respect to the requests made by other feudal
lords, if they are lawful, grant them; if they are unlawful, spurn them.
The so-called doomed ruler is not one who no longer
has a state but one who has a state but not in his grip. If he lets his
ministers control the home affairs through the support they receive from
abroad, the ruler of men will be doomed to ruin. Granting that to obey big
powers is to save one's own country from ruin, the ruin will in case of
obedience come faster than in the case of disobedience. Hence never obey them.
As soon as the ministers realize that the ruler will not obey, they will not
make friends abroad with other feudal lords. As soon as the feudal lords
realize that he will not obey,
The reason why the intelligent ruler establishes
posts, offices, ranks, and bounties, is to promote the worthy and encourage the
men of merit. Hence the saying: "The
That is not so nowadays. There is neither any
Of the ten faults:—
The first is to practise loyalty in small ways, which betrays loyalty in big ways.
The second is to esteem small advantages, which hampers big advantages.
The third is to force personal bias, assert oneself, and behave discourteously before feudal lords, which leads to self-destruction.
The fourth is to neglect political counsels and indulge in the five musical notes, which plunges one into misery.
The fifth is to keep covetous and self-opinionated and rejoice in nothing but gain, which is the root of state-ruin and self-destruction.
The sixth is to indulge in women singers and neglect state affairs, which forecasts the catastrophe of state-ruin.
The seventh is to leave home for distant travels and ignore remonstrances, which is the surest way to endanger one's august position at home.
The eighth is to commit faults, turn no ear to loyal ministers, and enforce one's own opinions, which destroys one's high reputation and causes people to laugh at one.
The ninth is not to consolidate the forces within
one's
The tenth is to insult big powers despite the smallness of one's own country and take no advice from remonstrants, which paves the way to the extermination of one's posterity.
What is meant by "practising small loyalty"?
Once King Kung
Historical
Records has #### in place of ####.Revue Asiatique, 1913). The
Historical Records has #### above ####. I regard #### as
the full name and prefer to read it as "Shu Yang-ko". Among the accepted family
names of the Chinese people "Shu" is found but not "Shu-yang". During the
Period of Spring and Autumn, however, not many commoners had family names, so
#### most probably meant a boy attendant in this case. By the time of
Ssŭ-ma Ch`ien #### seems to have definitely become a family name; so much
so that he made the superfluous addition of #### to it in the Historical Records.
What is meant by "esteeming small advantages"?
Of old, when Duke Hsien of Chin thought of
borrowing the way through Yü to invade Kuo, Hsün Hsi said: "If we bribe the
Duke of Yü with the jade from Ch`ui-chi and the team of the Ch`ü breed,
The Duke of Yü, regarding the jade and the horses
as inordinate advantages, thought of granting the request. Against this idea
Kung Chi-ch`i remonstrated with him, saying: "Your Highness should not grant
the request. Indeed, Yü has Kuo as neighbour just as the carriage has its
wheels. Just as the wheels depend on the carriage, so does the carriage depend
on the wheels. Such is the
Three years elapsed after his attack on Kuo, his
conquest of the country, and victorious return
b.c.
Thus the Duke of Yü saw his army driven into peril and his country dismembered. Why? It was because of his love of small advantages and unconcern about its harmfulness. Hence the saying: "To esteem small advantages hampers large advantages."
What is meant by "enforcing personal bias"?
In by-gone days, when King Ling of Ch`u called an
inter-state conference at Shên, as the Crown Prince of Sung arrived late, he
arrested him and put him into jail. Further, he insulted the Ruler of Hsü and
detained Ch`ing Fêng of Ch`i. Against these outrageous acts a certain middle
chamberlain remonstrated with the King, saying: "In holding a conference of the
feudal lords nobody should break the inter-state etiquette. For it involves a
Before ten years elapsed,
Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals has #### in
place of ####. 529 b.c.
What is meant by "indulging in the five musical notes"?
In by-gone days, when Duke Ling of Wei on his way to Chin arrived by the P`u Water, he loosened his carriage, released the horses, and set up a pavilion for sojourning Towards midnight he heard somebody playing a novel piece of music and was thereby greatly pleased. In the morning he sent men out to find the musician in the vicinity, but all came back with the report that he could not be found. Thereupon, the Duke summoned Musician Chüan and said to him: "There was somebody playing strange music last night. I have just sent men out to find the musician in the vicinity, but all reported that they had been unable to find him. It might be the performance by some devil or spirit. Would you, therefore, listen to it and copy it for me?" "At your service," replied Musician Chüan. So he sat still at night and played the harp to copy the music. Next day Musician Chüan gave his report to the Duke, saying: "Thy servant got it but he is still lacking in practice. Let us stay here another night and thy servant will practise it." "Certainly," said Duke Ling. So they spent another night there. By the following day he had mastered it, wherefore they left for Chin.
Duke P`ing of Chin entertained them with a wine
feast on the Shih-i Tower.
This scale remained the same until the rise of
the Yüan Dynasty. For detailed information the English reader is referred to
Aalst's kung (####) for all
guttural sounds, shang (####) for all sibilant sounds,
kioh (####) for all dental sounds, chih (####) for all lingual sounds, and yü (####) for all labial sounds. It is said that the five
strings of the harp constructed by Fu-hsi were thus named. The five notes had
generally formed the Chinese system of notation down to the Yin Dynasty. To
them were added pien-kung (####) and pien-kioh (####) at the beginning of the Chou Dynasty
(allegedly by King Wên). In consequence, the ancient Chinese scale became
closely equivalent to the modern Western scale as follows:—
Kung for C,
shang for D, kioh for E,
pien-kioh for F # (peculiar), chih for G, yü for A,
pien-kung for B, and kung for
C1.Chinese Music.
"Is the pure sibilant tune the saddest among all?"
asked the Duke further. "No," replied Musician K`uang, "it is not as sad as the
pure lingual tune." "Is it possible to hear the pure lingual tune?" asked the
Duke still further. "No," replied Musician K`uang. "In antiquity, those who
heard the pure lingual tune were all rulers of virtue and justice. Now, as Your
Highness's virtue is still shallow, Your Highness as yet does not deserve to
hear it." "Music amusing me in particular, let me hear it?" asked the Duke
insistently. Thereby Musician K`uang was forced to hold up the harp and play
it. Following the performance of the first part, there came from the south
black cranes, two times eight, and assembled at the end of the ridge of the
gallery roof. After the performance of the second part, they lined up
themselves in a row. When the third part was performed, they raised their necks
to sing and stretched their wings to dance. Among the notes the pitches of
kung and shang echoed in heaven.
Thereby Duke P`ing was much pleased and the audience were all amused.
Meanwhile, Duke P`ing held a cup of wine and rose
to drink with the expression of his wish for the health and happiness of
Musician K`uang. When he took his seat again, he asked, "Is there no tune
sadder than the pure lingual tune?" "It is not as sad as the pure dental tune,"
replied Musician K`uang. "Is it then possible to hear the pure dental tune?"
asked Duke P`ing. "No," replied Musician K`uang. "In by-gone days the Yellow
Emperor b.c.
What is meant by "keeping covetous and
Of old, Earl Chih Yao led his allies, Chao, Han,
and Wey, to attack Fan and Chung-hang and destroyed them.
b.c. These six clans comprised the so-called Six Nobles
of Chin.
Likewise, he sent men to demand land from Wey. When
Viscount Hsüan of Wey
Schemes of the Warring States has #### above
####.Schemes of the
Warring States have #### below #### ####.Schemes of the Warring States has #### above ####.
Earl Chih finally sent men to Chao to demand the districts of Ts`ai and Kao-lang. As Viscount Hsiang of Chao refused to give them, Earl Chih formed a secret alliance with Han and Wey on purpose to invade Chao.
Thereupon Viscount Hsiang summoned Chang Mêng-t`an
and said to him: "Indeed, Earl Chih is by nature kind
Schemes of the Warring States has #### in place of
####.vide supra, p. 27).
Then he summoned Yen-ling Yü
Then the Viscount summoned Chang Mêng-t`an and
asked: "Though our city-walls are now in good repair, provisions for defence
measures are now ready, money and grain are now sufficient, and armour and
weapons are now more than enough, yet what can I do without arrows?" In reply
Chang Mêng-t`an said: "As thy servant has heard, when Tung Tzŭ was
governing Chin-yang, the fences of the Public Hall all had on their outer
enclosures bush-clovers and thorny reeds, whose height nowadays reaches ten
feet. Suppose Your Highness take them out and use them. There will then be more
than enough arrows." Meanwhile, the Viscount had the reeds and the bushes taken
out, had them tried, and found their stiffness not even surpassed by the
strength of the stems of fragrant bamboos.
Chün
(####) was the special name given to the bamboos from the Cloudy Dream Swamps
in the Ch`u State.
Soon afterwards the Viscount asked: "I have enough arrows, but what can I do without metal?" In reply Chang Mêng-t`an said: "Thy servant has heard that when Tung Tzŭ was governing Chin-yang, the drawing rooms of the Public Hall and the Public Dormitory all had columns and pedestals made of refined copper. Suppose Your Highness were to get them out and use them." So the Viscount had them taken out and got more than enough metal.
No sooner than the commands and orders were
established
Immediately after their arrival they fell on the
city-walls of Chin-yang and started fighting. Yet, despite three months'
engagement, they could not take the city; wherefore they spread out their
troops and besieged it, and led the water of the river outside Chin-yang to
inundate it. For three years
vide supra, p. ii, n.
5).
When Chang Mêng-t`an saw the Rulers of Han and Wey,
he said: "Thy servant has heard, `When the lips are gone, the teeth are cold.'
Now that Earl Chih has led Your Highnesses to invade Chao, Chao is on the verge
of destruction. After the fall of Chao, you both will fall next." "We know that
is very likely to happen," said the two
The two rulers, after having sent Chang Mêng-t`an
away with the promise, called on Earl Chih. On leaving they met Chih Kuo
outside the gate of the commander's
On the appointed night the Chao Clan killed the
enemy garrisons of the dikes and led the water to inundate the army of Earl
Chih. Earl Chih's troops on keeping the water out fell into confusion.
Meanwhile, Han and Wey launched a surprise attack from both sides while
Viscount Hsiang led his forces to raid the front. They defeated Earl Chih's
troops by long odds and captured Earl Chih. Earl Chih died, his forces were
crushed, his country was divided into three, and he became a laughing-stock of
the whole world.
b.c.
What is meant by "indulging in women singers"?
Of old, when Yu Yü was sent by the King of Jung to
pay a courtesy visit to the court of Ch`in, Duke Mu asked him, saying: "I have
heard about the right way of
After Yu Yü had gone out, the Duke summoned the
Officer of the Censorate Liao and said to him: "I have heard that the presence
of a sage in a neighbouring country is a constant threat to the enemy countries
adjacent to it. Now Yu Yü is a sage, I am worrying about it. What shall I do?"
In reply the Officer of the Censorate Liao said: "As thy servant has heard, the
dwelling of the King of Jung is so rustic and so remote
b.c.
What is meant by "leaving home for distant travels"?
Once upon a time, while Viscount T`ien Ch`êng
b.c. The "Right
Selected Persuasions has #### in place of ####. I think Han
Fei Tzŭ mistook #### for ####.
What is meant by "committing faults and turn no ear to loyal ministers"?
In by-gone days, Duke Huan of Ch`i called the
feudal lords to meet nine times, brought All-under-Heaven under one rule, and
became the first of the Five Hegemonic Rulers. And Kuan Chung assisted him.
When Kuan Chung became aged and unable to attend to his duties, he retired to
live at his home. One day Duke Huan went to call on him and asked: "Uncle Chung
is ill at home. If by any unlucky chance you should not be up and doing again,
to whom should the state affairs be entrusted?" In reply Kuan Chung said: "Thy
servant is old and hardly worth
"How about Pao Shu-ya?" asked the Duke. "No."
replied Kuan Chung. "For Pao Shu-ya is by nature rigorous, self-opinionated,
and stubborn-minded. Rigorous, he is likely to be violent towards the people.
Self-opinionated, he cannot win the hearts of the people. If he is
"Then how about Shu Tiao?" asked the Duke. "No," replied Kuan Chung. "Such is human nature, indeed, that everybody loves his own body. Now because Your Highness was habitually jealous and fond of women, Shu Tiao castrated himself for the single purpose of administering the harem. If he could not love his own body, how would he be able to love his master?"
"Then how about Prince K`ai-fang of Wei?" asked the
Duke. "No," replied Kuan Chung. "The distance between Ch`i and Wei is not more
than ten days' walk. Yet K`ai-fang in order to serve Your Highness and meet his
needs
"Well, then, how about Yi-ya?" asked the Duke.
"No," replied Kuan Chung. "Indeed, Yi-ya was in charge of the tastes of Your
Highness's diet, and, finding that what
"Well, then, who will be the right man?" asked the Duke. "Hsi P`êng is he," replied Kuan Chung. "For he is habitually steadfast in mind and upright towards people and has few wants but many credits. Indeed, steadfast in mind, he can offer an example to others; upright towards people, he can be appointed to important office; having few wants, he will be able to subject the masses; and having many credits, he will be able to make friends with the neighbouring states. A man like this is the right kind of assistant to the Hegemonic Ruler. Suppose Your Highness employ him." "Certainly," said the Duke.
More than one year later, Kuan Chung died, but the
Duke did not employ Hsi P`êng but passed the reins of government to Shu Tiao.
Shu Tiao had handled the state affairs for three years already, when Duke Huan
travelled southward to T`ang-fu. Thereupon Shu Tiao, leading Yi-ya, Prince
K`ai-fang of Wei, and the chief vassals, launched a rebellion. In consequence,
Duke Huan died of thirst and hunger in heavily-guarded confinement inside the
bed chamber by the south gate. There his dead body lay uncovered for three
months,
But why was it that Duke Huan was at last murdered
by his ministers, deprived of his high reputation, and
What is meant by "not consolidating the forces within one's boundaries"?
Of old, when Ch`in was attacking Yi-yang, the Han
Clan was in imminent danger. Thereupon Kung-chung P`êng said to the Ruler of
Han: "Our allies are not reliable. Is it not the best policy to make peace with
Ch`in through Chang Yi's good offices? Suppose we bribe Ch`in with a famous
city and join her in her southward campaign against Ch`u. This will appease our
trouble with Ch`in and defeat her friendship with Ch`u." "Good," the Ruler
b.c., the Ruler of
Han had called himself king for six years and was no longer a duke.
When the King of Ch`u heard about this scheme, he
felt uneasy, summoned Ch`ên Chên, and said to him: "P`êng of Han is going
westward to make peace with Ch`in. What shall we do?" In reply Ch`ên Chên said:
"Ch`in, after receiving one city from Han, will mobilize her best-trained
soldiers, and will turn the combined forces of Ch`in and Han southward against
Ch`u. This is what the King of Ch`in has sought in his prayer at his ancestral
shrine. No doubt, they will do Ch`u harm. Suppose Your Majesty
Han actually sent a delegation to Ch`u. The King of
Ch`u, accordingly, despatched chariots and cavalry and lined them up along the
northern road.
The situation at Yi-yang became more and more
threatening, when the Ruler of Han despatched envoys to press for
reinforcements from Ch`u. One envoy followed on the heels of another so closely
that their hats and canopies were almost within one another's sight; but all in
vain. Yi-yang was finally taken
b.c.
What is meant by "insulting big powers despite the smallness of one's own state"?
In by-gone days, when Prince Ch`ung-erh of Chin
b.c.) in exile. Upon his return to Chin he ascended
the throne as Duke Wên and subsequently became
Hsi Fu-chi went home, feeling unhappy. So his wife
asked him: "Your Excellency has just come home from outdoors but has some
unpleasant colour on the face. Why?" In reply Hsi Fu-chi said: "As I have
heard, `When the ruler has good luck, it will not visit me; but when he has bad
luck, it will befall me.' To-day His Highness summoned the Prince of Chin and
accorded him very discourteous treatment. I was attending before him. Therefore
I have felt unhappy." "As far as I can see," said his wife, "the Prince of Chin
will be a ruler of ten thousand chariots,
From Ts`ao the Prince entered Ch`u, and from Ch`u
entered Ch`in. After he had stayed in Ch`in for three years, Duke Mu of Ch`in
one day summoned all ministers for consultation, saying: "That in by-gone days
Duke Hsien of Chin kept intimate friendship with me, every feudal lord has
heard. Unfortunately Duke Hsien passed away from the body of officials. It is
nearly ten years since. His successors so far have been no good. I am therefore
afraid lest this state of continuous chaos should leave their ancestral shrine
deserted and deprive their Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain of regular
offerings. To make no decision to restore order to the country is not the way
to maintain my intimate friendship with them. I am therefore thinking of
supporting Ch`ung-erh and installing him on the throne of Chin. How do you
think?" "Fine," replied all the ministers. Thereupon the Duke raised an army of
five hundred leather-covered chariots, two thousand good horsemen, and fifty
thousand foot-soldiers, to help
After having been on the throne for three years,
Thus, Ts`ao was a small state pressed between Chin and Ch`u. Its ruler was in constant danger as piled eggs are, but he accorded the Prince of Chin such a discourteous reception. This was the reason why his posterity was wiped out. Hence the saying: "To insult big powers despite the smallness of one's own country and take no advice from remonstrants paves the way to the extinction of one's posterity."
Men
well versed in the principles of tact
Ministers who attend to their duties in conformity
to orders and fulfil their posts in accordance with laws, are not called
"heavy-handed men".
Men well versed in the principles of tact, being
clearly observing, if listened to and taken into service by the ruler, will
discern the secret motives of the heavy-handed men.
If the authorities concerned take all matters of
the state into their own hands, then everybody, whether outside or inside the
court, will be bound to become their tool. Thus, unless through their good
offices, feudal lords from abroad cannot accomplish any negotiation, wherefore
even enemy states praise
The heavy-handed men cannot be so loyal to the
sovereign as to recommend their enemies and the lord of men cannot rise above
their four assistances in such wise as to discern the right types of ministers.
Therefore, the more deluded
In general, the authorities concerned, in relation
to the lord of men, are rarely not trusted and beloved, and,
Indeed, the strange and distant, when contesting
with the near and dear, have no reason to win; newcomers and travellers, when
contesting with long acquaintances and old intimates, have no reason to win;
opponents of the sovereign's opinion, when contesting with his supporters of
the same taste, have no reason to win; the humble and powerless, when
contesting with the noble and powerful, have no reason to win; and a single
mouth,
Being thus hopelessly handicapped in their
equipment and rendered incompatible with the authorities by force of
circumstances, how can upholders of law and tact avoid dangers? Those who can
be falsely accused of criminal offences are censured with state laws; those who
cannot be indicted as criminals are ended by private swordsmen. For this
reason,
However, friends and partisans who form juntas on
purpose to delude the sovereign and twist their words so as to benefit
themselves, always win the confidence of the heavy-handed men. Accordingly,
those who can be accorded the pretext of meritorious services are ennobled with
official rank; those who cannot
In these days, the lord of men, without
investigating
Indeed, the Yüeh State was rich and her army was
strong. Yet the sovereign of every Central State, knowing that she was useless
to him, would say: "She is not within the reach of my control." Take for
example a state at present.
People
In general, the difficulty in enacting law and tact is met not only by rulers of ten thousand chariots but also by rulers of one thousand chariots. As the attendants of the lord of men are not necessarily intelligent, if in estimating new personnel he first takes counsel from men whom he considers wise and then discusses their words with his attendants, he is talking about wise men to fools. As the attendants of the lord of men are not necessarily worthy, if in estimating new personnel he first pays respect to men whom he considers worthy and then discusses their deeds with his attendants, he is talking about worthies to ruffians. If wise men have to submit their plans for fools' approval and worthies have to see their deeds estimated by ruffians, men of worthiness and wisdom will feel ashamed and the ruler's conclusions will be full of fallacies.
Among the sovereign's subjects aspiring to official
honours, refined men would keep their characters clean, and wise men would
advance their careers
The attendants of the lord of men are not as
upright in conduct as Poh-i.
The threat to the ruler of ten thousand chariots is
the chief vassals' being too powerful. The threat to the ruler of one
Thus, if the sovereign ever changes the
circumstances,
Ministers guilty of major offences must have deceived their sovereign. Such crimes deserve the death penalty. The wise men, far-seeing and afraid of death, never will obey the heavy-handed men. Similarly, the worthies, anxious to cultivate their personal integrity and ashamed of joining the wicked ministers in deceiving the sovereign, never will obey the chief vassals. That being so, the adherents and dependents of the authorities concerned, if not stupid and ignorant of the impending calamity, must be corrupt and mind no wickedness.
The chief vassals, holding such stupid and corrupt
men under control, co-operate with them in deceiving the sovereign from above
and collect spoils from below. Their friends and partisans exploit the masses
of the people,
i.—Difficulties in the way of persuasion, generally
speaking, are not difficulties in my knowledge with which I persuade the ruler,
nor are they difficulties in my skill of argumentation which enables me to make
my ideas clear, nor are they difficulties in my courage to exert my abilities
without reserve. As a whole, the difficulties in the way of persuasion lie in
my knowing the heart of the persuaded in order thereby to fit my wording into
it.
If the persuaded strives after high fame while you persuade him of big profit, you will be considered low-bred, accorded mean treatment, and shunned from afar. If the persuaded strives after big profit while you persuade him of high fame, you will be considered mindless and ignorant of worldly affairs and will never be accepted. If the persuaded strives after big profit in secret but openly seeks for high fame while you persuade him of high fame, you will be accepted in name but kept distant in fact; and, if you persuade him of big profit, your word will be adopted in secret but your person will be left out openly. These points should be carefully deliberated.
Indeed, affairs succeed if kept secret and
Historical Records has #### in place of ####.
Therefore, if you talk about great men to him, he
thinks you are intimating his defects. If you talk about small men to him, he
thinks you are showing off your superiority. If you discuss an object of his
love, he thinks you are expecting a special favour from it. If you discuss an
object of his hate, he thinks you are testing his temper. If you simplify your
discussion, he thinks you are unwise and will spurn you. If your discussion is
lucidly wayward and extensively Historical Records has #### in place of ####.
2.—In general, the business of the persuader is to embellish the pride and obliterate the shame of the persuaded. If he has any private urgent need, you ought to encourage him with the cause of public justice. If the persuaded has a mean intention but cannot help it, you ought to praise its excellent points and minimize its harmfulness to the public. If he has a high ambition in mind but his real ability falls short of the mark, you ought to enumerate its mistakes, disclose its disadvantages, and esteem his suspension from realizing it. If he aspires to the pride of wisdom and talent, you ought to enumerate different species of the same genus with reference to every object of knowledge and thereby supply him with abundant information and let him derive ideas from you but pretend to ignorance of his derivation so as to elevate his wisdom.
If you want the persuaded to adopt your suggestion
to cultivate inter-state friendship, you ought to explain it in the light of a
glorious cause and intimate its accord with his private interest. If you want
to describe things dangerous and injurious to the state welfare, you ought to
enumerate
Praise those men doing the same things as he does. Esteem the tasks under the same scheme as his tasks are. In regard to men having the same faults as he has, be sure to defend their harmlessness. In regard to men having met the same failures as he met, be sure to bring out their incurring no loss. If he makes much of his own strength, do not bring in any difficult task that impedes him. If he thinks his own decisions brave, do not point out their unlawfulness; that angers him. If he thinks his own scheme wise, do not recall his past failures which embarrass him. When your meaning is not offensive and your wording is not flippant, you are then under way to use all your wisdom and eloquence to persuade anybody. In this way you can become near and dear to him, avoid all suspicion, and exert your speech to the utmost.
I Yin had to work as a cook and Pai-li Hsi had to
go as a captive, both aiming thereby to approach their masters. These two men
were sages. Still they could not help lowering themselves to such a humble
level in order to introduce themselves to notice. Now take me
Indeed, as days multiply in the long course of time
and favour with the ruler grows well-grounded, when you are no longer suspected
of devising schemes profoundly and not convicted in joining issue with the
ruler on any point, Historical Records has #### in place of ####.
3.—In by-gone days, Duke Wu of Chêng, thinking of
invading Hu, married his daughter to the Ruler of Hu and thereby pleased his
mind. Then he asked his ministers, "I am thinking of starting a military
campaign. Which country should be invaded?" In reply High Officer Kuan
Ch`i-Ssŭ said, "Hu should be invaded." Angered thereby, Duke Wu executed
him saying: "Hu is a sister
There was in Sung a rich man. Once it rained and his mud fence collapsed. Thereupon his son said: "If the fence is not immediately rebuilt, burglars might come." So also did the father of his neighbours say to him. On the evening of that day he incurred a great loss of money. Thereafter his family had high regard for his son's wisdom but suspected the father of the neighbours.
Now, what these two men
Therefore, Jao Ch`ao,
b.c. during the reign of Duke Ling of Chin the Chin
In by-gone days, Mi Tzŭ-hsia was in favour
with the Ruler of Wei. According to the Law of the Wei State, "whoever in
secret rides in the Ruler's coach shall have his feet cut off." Once Mi
Tzŭ-hsia's mother fell ill. Somebody, hearing about this, sent a message
to Mi Tzŭ late at night. Thereupon Mi Tzŭ on the pretence of the
Ruler's order rode in the Ruler's coach. At the news of this, the Ruler
regarded his act as worthy, saying: "How dutiful he is! For his mother's sake
he even forgot that he was committing a crime making him liable to lose his
feet." Another day, when taking a stroll with the Ruler in an orchard, he ate a
peach. It being so sweet, he did not finish it, but gave the Ruler the
remaining half to eat. So, the Ruler said: "You love me so much indeed, that
you would even forget your own saliva taste and let me eat the rest of the
peach." When the colour of Mi Tzŭ faded, the Ruler's love for him
slackened. Once he happened to offend the Ruler, the Ruler said: "This fellow
once rode in my coach under
Therefore, if anybody stands in his master's
favour, his wisdom will function well and his intimacy with him will grow; once
he incurs the master's hatred, his wisdom will stop functioning
Extracts from Classical Works has no #### below
####.
Once a man
of Ch`u, named Pien Ho, came by an uncut jade in the Ch`u Hills. He brought it
home and submitted it as a present to King Wu.
When King Wên died and King Ch`êng ascended the
throne, Ho, carrying the uncut jade in his arms, cried at the foot of the Ching
Hills.
Indeed, pearls and gems are what the lord of men wants badly. Though Ho presented the uncut jade to the Throne, before it was made beautiful, he was never a harm to His Majesty. Nevertheless, it was only after both his feet had been cut off that the treasure was acknowledged. That to establish an opinion of a treasure should be so difficult!
To-day, the lord of men feels the need of law and
tact not necessarily as badly as he wants the Jade of Pien Ho, whereas he has
to suppress the self-seeking wickedness of all officials, gentry, and
commoners.
If the sovereign uses tact, then neither the chief
vassals can fix the state policies at their will, nor will the courtiers dare
to sell off any personal favour. If the magistrate enforces the law, then
vagabonds have to turn to tillage while itinerants have to stop talking about
warfare. If so, law and tact offer a drawback to the officials, gentry, and
commoners.
In by-gone days, Wu Ch`i taught King Tao of Ch`u a
state policy for Ch`u, saying: "When chief vassals are too powerful and
enfeoffed retainers too numerous, the body of officials will intimidate the
ruler and oppress the
Lord Shang taught Duke Hsiao of Ch`in to organize
groups of ten and five families, and establish the system of denunciation of
crime and joint responsibility for offence, to burn the Books
of Poetry and History
Historical
Records and other books never mention Lord Shang's teaching to burn the
Books of Poetry and History. Lord Shang might have
taught it, but Duke Hsiao apparently never carried it into effect.
Ch`u, not employing Wu Ch`i, was dismembered and
disturbed; Ch`in, practising the Law of Lord Shang, became
Wicked ministers, in
general, all think of following the mind of the lord of men in order to attain
the status of enjoying the sovereign's confidence and favour. For this reason,
whatever the sovereign likes they praise accordingly; whatever the sovereign
hates they blame accordingly. On
Indeed, if wicked ministers can take advantage of
the status of enjoying the sovereign's confidence and favour to blame, praise,
promote, and degrade the officials, it is because the lord of men has neither
the tact and measure
If the state has "lord-manipulating vassals", then
no official will be able to exert his wisdom and strength and
For this reason, as soon as the attendants come to
know the impossibility of seeking safety
Likewise, as soon as officials of all posts come to
know the impossibility of seeking safety by playing square and upright, they
will certainly say: "When we serve the superior cleanly and incorruptibly, to
seek safety is as hopeless as to make squares and circles without the
carpenter's compasses and squares. If we hold office by observing the law and
not forming juntos, to seek safety is the same as to scratch the head with the
foot, which is still more hopeless. If neither road leads to safety, why should
we not discard the law, practise selfishness, and thereby please the
Such being the case, those who work for the
Indeed, tactful men, when ministering to a ruler,
would enforce
For this reason, attendants and courtiers, as soon
as they come to know the impossibility of seeking safety by means of falsehood
and deceit, will certainly say: "If we do not stop wicked deeds and apply our
strength and exert our wisdom to serve the sovereign, but merely associate with
one another for treasonable purposes and make arbitrary blame and praise so as
to seek safety, it is as hopeless as to expect to live by falling into an abyss
of immeasurable depth with a weight of thirty thousand catties
chün is about thirty catties.
Likewise, officials of all posts, as soon as they come to know the impossibility of seeking safety by coveting wicked profits, will certainly say: "If we do not obey the law by keeping ourselves pure, incorruptible, square, and upright, but simply want to secure wicked profits by bending the law with the greedy and corrupt minds, it is as hopeless as to expect to live by going up to the top of a high hill and then falling down into the bottom of a deep ravine."
If the road to safety and danger is so clear, then
how can the attendants beguile the sovereign with empty words? And how dare the
officials exploit the masses covetously? Accordingly, ministers able to express
their spirit of loyalty Taoist Thesaurus edition has #### in place of
####.
From such a viewpoint, I can see that the sage in
governing the state pursues the policy of making the people inevitably do him
good
To be sure, ruler and minister having no blood
kinship, if able to seek safety
Certainly for this reason, though the lord of men
neither teaches the officials with his own mouth nor finds the culprits and
ruffians with his own eyes, yet the state is always orderly. The lord of men
does not have to possess such eyes as those of Li Lou in order to be bright,
nor does he have to possess such ears as those of Musician K`uang in order to
be acute. If he does not trust to measures but relies on his eyes alone for his
brightness, then what he sees will be little. For it
Therefore, who can hold his august position
skilfully, finds his state in safety; who does not know how to utilize his
august position, finds his state in danger. For illustration, in by-gone days
it was the custom in Ch`in for both ruler and minister to discard state laws
and uphold private creeds, wherefore the country was disorderly, the army weak,
and the sovereign ignoble. Thereupon Lord Shang persuaded Duke Hsiao of Ch`in
to alter the law and renovate the custom by making public justice clear,
rewarding the denouncers of culprits, discouraging secondary callings,
The law and craft of the best government are thus clear enough. Yet scholars in the world never understand them.
Further, all stupid scholars in the world do not
know the actual conditions of order and chaos but chatter nonsense and chant
too many hackneyed old books to disturb the government of the present age.
Though their wisdom and thought are not sufficient to avoid pitfalls,
Indeed, what the stupid scholars in the world are
to the upholders of tact, that is the ant-hill to the big mound. They are very
different from each other. The sage is the one who scrutinizes the facts of
right and wrong and investigates the conditions of order and chaos. Therefore,
when governing the state he rectifies laws clearly and establishes penalties
severely in order to rescue all living beings
vide supra, p. 55).
Of course, the stupid men want order but dislike
the true path to order.
If the upholders of law and tact, being located in
an unrighteous position, accorded slanders by everybody, and addicted to the
words of the age, want to face the severe Son of Heaven and seek safety, is it
not hard for them to hope
Lord Ch`un-shên,
Yü next wanted to kill Chia and make her own son the heir apparent instead. So she tore the lining of her own petticoat. Showing the torn clothes to the Lord, she shed tears and said: "It is a long time since Yü became able to enjoy Your Excellency's favour, which Chia has known of course. Just a while ago, he thought of taking liberties with Yü by force. Yü struggled with him, till he tore her clothes. No other impious act committed by a son could be worse than this!" Enraged thereby, the Lord killed Chia. Thus, the wife was deserted because of the falsehood of the concubine Yü and the son was killed because of the same.
From this I can see that even the father's love of
the son can be demolished and damaged. Now that the mutual relationship of
ruler and minister does not involve the kinship of father and son and the
slanderous words of the officials are not so simple as those coming out only
from the single mouth of a concubine, no wonder worthies and sages are
slaughtered and executed! This was the very
In general, ministers, when guilty of crimes, never want to be censured, but, when of no merit, all want to be honoured and celebrated. However, the sage, when governing the state, never bestows rewards on men of no merit but definitely inflicts censures on culprits. If so, the characters of the upholders of tact and measure are certainly disgusting to the attendants and wicked ministers. Accordingly, nobody but an intelligent sovereign can take advice from them.
Scholars of the present age in counselling the lord
of men do not say, "Make use of the august and commanding position and thereby
harass the wicked and villainous ministers," but all say, "Practise nothing but
benevolence, righteousness, favour, and love!" Accordingly, rulers of the
present age have praised the names of benevolent and righteous men but have
never examined their realities, so that in serious cases they have ruined their
states and lost their lives and in minor cases they have seen their territories
dismembered and their ranks relegated. How to explain this? Indeed, to give
alms to the poor and destitute is what the world calls a benevolent and
righteous act; to take pity on the hundred surnames and hesitate to inflict
censure and punishment on culprits is what the world calls an act of favour and
love. To be sure, when the ruler gives alms
Indeed, severe penalty is what the people fear, heavy punishment is what the people hate. Accordingly, the wise man promulgates what they fear in order to forbid the practice of wickedness and establishes what they hate in order to prevent villainous acts. For this reason the state is safe and no outrage happens. From this I know very well that benevolence, righteousness, love, and favour, are not worth adopting while severe penalty and heavy punishment can maintain the state in order.
Without the severity of the whip and the facility of the bridle, even Tsao-fu could not drive the horse; without the rule of the compasses and squares and the tip of the inked string, even Wang Erh could not draw squares and circles; and without the position of authority and power and the law of reward and punishment, even Yao and Shun could not keep the state in order. Now that rulers of the present age thoughtlessly discard heavy punishment and severe censure and practise love and favour, to realize the achievement of the Hegemonic Ruler is also hopeless.
Therefore, the skilful sovereign makes rewards
clear and displays advantages to encourage the people and make them
If you have a solid carriage and a good horse, you can go over slopes and cliffs on land; if you embark in a safe boat and hold its easy helm in hand, you can get over the hazards of streams and rivers on water. Similarly, if you have the measures of law and tact in your grip and carry heavy punishment and severe censure into effect, you will be able to accomplish the achievement of the Hegemonic Ruler. Now, to have law and tact, reward and punishment, in governing the state, is the same as to have a solid carriage and a good horse in travelling on land and have a fast boat and an easy helm in travelling on water. Whoever has them in his grip will eventually accomplish his purpose.
Yi Yin mastered them, wherefore T`ang became
supreme; Kuan Chung mastered them, wherefore Ch`i became hegemonic; and Lord
Shang mastered them, wherefore Ch`in became a powerful state. These three men
all understood the statecraft of supremacy and hegemony clearly and observed
the measures for order and strength closely and were never restrained by
worldly and popular sayings. Thus, meeting the demands of the intelligent
sovereigns of their times, they emerged from the status of wearers of hemp
cloth
T`ang, because he got Yi Yin, rose from one hundred
square li of territory to become the Son of Heaven. Duke Huan, because he got
Kuan Chung, became the first Hegemonic Ruler, called nine meetings of the
feudal lords, and brought All-under-Heaven under one rule. Because Duke Hsiao
got Lord Shang, his territory was extended and his army was strengthened.
Therefore, whoever has loyal ministers, has no worry over enemy states outside
and no anxiety about rebellious ministers inside, enjoying permanent peace in
All-under-Heaven and handing down his name to posterity. Such ministers are the
so-called loyal ministers.
Take the case of Yü Jang. When ministering to Earl
Chih, he could not counsel the lord of men and make him clearly understand the
principles of law and tact, rule and measure, so as to avoid disasters, nor
could he lead and control his masses so as to keep the state in safety. When
Viscount Hsiang had killed Earl Chih, Yü Jang branded
There is a proverb saying, "Even the leper feels
pity for the king."
Schemes of the Warring States, the passages beginning
with this sentence and ending with the present chapter were written by Sun
Tzŭ to Lord Ch`un-shên.
If the lord of men does not have law and tact to
control his ministers, then though he is still on the green margin of his life
and has excellent talents, chief vassals will, as usual, gain influence,
administer all state affairs at their will, and make all decisions on their own
authority, everybody working to his own advantage. Fearing lest uncles and
brothers of the sovereign or some heroic men should exercise the
Taoist Thesaurus edition and the Schemes of the Warring States have #### in place of
####.
Hence it is recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals: "Prince Wei of Ch`u was once on
his way to visit the court of Chêng. Before he crossed the state border, he
heard about His Majesty's illness and therefore turned homeward. When he went
in to inquire after the King's illness, he strangled His Majesty to death with
the ribbons of his hat, and finally established himself on the throne.
b.c.b.c.
As witnessed in recent times, no sooner had Li Tai
b.c.b.c. Three years later, his eldest son, Chang,
who had once been the Crown Prince, launched a revolt against Ho, then King
Hui-wên, but failed and sought refuge in the Father Sovereign's detached palace
at the Sandy Hill. Li Tai upon his arrival first killed the rebellious prince
and then locked up the Father Sovereign inside the palace and starved him to
death.b.c., he asked
for rescue from Ch`u. King Ch`ing-hsiang, accordingly, appointed Nao Ch`ih
commander of the reinforcements. Upon his arrival at Ch`i, Nao Ch`ih was
appointed Prime Minister by King Min. Fearing the Yen invaders, however, he
betrayed the King, secretly made peace with Yen, and finally murdered the King
in 283 b.c.
Therefore, the leper, despite the boils and swellings all over his body, as compared with rulers of the Spring and Autumn Period, never suffers such miseries as neck-strangling and thigh-shooting, and, as compared with rulers of recent times, never suffers such miseries as starvation to death and sinew-pulling. Thus, the mental agony and physical pain of the rulers molested and murdered certainly exceed those of the leper. From this viewpoint, though the leper feels pity for the king, there is good reason for it.
1. As a rule, if the state of the lord of men is small but the fiefs of private families are big, or if the ruler's sceptre is insignificant but the ministers are powerful, then ruin is possible.
2. If the ruler neglects laws and prohibitions, indulges in plans and ideas, disregards the defence works within the boundaries and relies on foreign friendship and support, then ruin is possible.
3. If all officials indulge in studies, sons of the family are fond of debate, peddlars and shopkeepers hide money in foreign countries, and poor people suffer miseries at home, then ruin is possible.
4. If the ruler is fond of palatial decorations, raised kiosks, and embanked pools, is immersed in pleasures of having chariots, clothes, and curios, and thereby tires out the hundred surnames and exhausts public wealth, then ruin is possible.
5. If the ruler believes in date-selecting,
6. If the ruler takes advice only from ministers of high rank, refrains from comparing different opinions and testifying to the truth, and uses only one man as a channel of information, then ruin is possible.
7. If posts and offices can be sought through influential personages and rank and bounties can be obtained by means of bribes, then ruin is possible.
8. If the ruler, being easy-going, accomplishes nothing, being tender-hearted, lacking in decision, and, wavering between acceptance and rejection, has no settled opinion, then ruin is possible.
9. If the ruler is greedy, insatiable, attracted to profit, and fond of gain, then ruin is possible.
10. If the ruler enjoys inflicting unjust punishment and does not uphold the law, likes debate and persuasion but never sees to their practicability, and indulges in style and wordiness but never considers their effect, then ruin is possible.
11. If the ruler is shallow-brained and easily penetrated, reveals everything but conceals nothing, and cannot keep any secret but communicates the words of one minister to another, then ruin is possible.
12. If the ruler is stubborn-minded, uncompromising, and apt to dispute every remonstrance and fond of surpassing everybody else, and never thinks of the welfare of the Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain but sticks to self-confidence without due consideration, then ruin is possible.
13. The ruler who relies on friendship and support from distant countries, makes light of his relations with close neighbours, counts on the aid from big powers, and provokes surrounding countries, is liable to ruin.
14. If foreign travellers and residents, whose property and families are abroad, take seats in the state council and interfere in civil affairs, then ruin is possible.
15. If the people have no
16. If the ruler does not take able men of the country into service but searches after foreign gentlemen, and if he does not make tests according to meritorious services but would appoint and dismiss officials according to their mere reputations till foreign residents are exalted and ennobled to surpass his old acquaintances, then ruin is possible.
17. If the ruler disregards the matter of legitimacy and lets bastards rival legitimate sons, or if the sovereign dies before he inaugurates the crown prince, then ruin is possible.
18. If the ruler is boastful but never regretful, makes much of himself despite the disorder prevailing in his country, and insults the neighbouring enemies without estimating the resources within the boundaries, then ruin is possible.
19. If the state is small but the ruler will not acquiesce in a humble status; if his forces are scanty but he never fears strong foes; if he has no manners and insults big neighbours; or if he is greedy and obstinate but unskilful in diplomacy; then ruin is possible.
20. If, after the inauguration of the crown prince, the ruler take in a woman from a strong enemy state, the crown prince will be endangered and the ministers will be worried. Then ruin is possible.
21. If the ruler is timid and weak in self-defence
and his mind is paralysed by the signs of future events; or if he knows what to
decide on
22. If the exiled ruler is abroad but the country sets up a new ruler, or if before the heir apparent taken abroad as hostage returns, the ruler changes his successor, then the state will divide. And the state divided against itself is liable to ruin.
23. If the ruler keeps near and dear to the chief
vassals whom he has disheartened and disgraced or stands close
24. If chief vassals rival each other in power and uncles and brothers are many and powerful, and if they form juntas inside and receive support from abroad and thereby dispute state affairs and struggle for supreme influence, then ruin is possible.
25. If words of maids and concubines are followed and the wisdom of favourites is used, and the ruler repeats committing unlawful acts regardless of the grievances and resentments inside and outside the court, then ruin is possible.
26. If the ruler is contemptuous to chief vassals and impolite to uncles and brothers, overworks the hundred surnames, and slaughters innocent people, then ruin is possible.
27. If the ruler is fond of twisting laws by virtue
of his wisdom, mixes public with private
28. If the terrian has no stronghold,
29. If the royal seed is short-lived, new sovereigns succeed to each other continuously, babies become rulers, and chief vassals have all the ruling authority to themselves and recruit partisans from among foreign residents and maintain inter-state friendship by frequently ceding territories, then ruin is possible.
30. If the crown prince is esteemed and celebrated, has numerous dependents and protégés, develops friendships with big powers, and exercises his authority and influence from his early years, then ruin is possible.
31. If the ruler is narrow-minded,
32. If the sovereign is easily provoked and fond of resorting to arms and neglects agricultural and military training but ventures warfare and invasion heedlessly, then ruin is possible.
33. If nobles are jealous of one another, chief
vassals are prosperous, seeking support from enemy states and harassing
34. If the ruler is unworthy but his half-brothers are worthy; if the heir apparent is powerless and the bastard surpasses him; or if the magistrates are weak and the people are fierce; then the state will be seized with a panic. And a panic-stricken state is liable to ruin.
35. If the ruler conceals his anger, which he would never reveal, suspends a criminal case, which he never would censure, and thereby makes the officials hate him in secret and increases their worries and fears, and if he never comes to know the situation even after a long time, then ruin is possible.
36. If the commander in the front line has too much power, the governor on the frontier has too much nobility, and if they have the ruling authority to themselves, issue orders at their own will and do just as they wish without asking permission of the ruler, then ruin is possible.
37. If the queen is adulterous, the sovereign's
mother is corrupt, attendants inside and outside the court
38. If the queen is humble but the concubine is
noble, the heir apparent is low but the bastard is high, the prime minister is
despised but the court usher is esteemed, then
39. If chief vassals are very powerful, have many strong partisans, obstruct the sovereign's decisions, and administer all state affairs on their own authority, then ruin is possible.
40. If vassals of private families are employed but
descendants of military officers
41. If the state treasury is empty but the chief vassals have plenty of money, native subjects are poor but foreign residents are rich, farmers and warriors have hard times but people engaged in secondary professions are benefited, then ruin is possible.
42. The ruler who sees a great advantage but does not advance towards it, hears the outset of a calamity but does not provide against it, thus neglecting preparations for attack and defence and striving to embellish himself with the practice of benevolence and righteousness, is liable to ruin.
43. If the ruler does not practise the filial piety of the lord of men but yearns after the filial piety of the commoner, does not regard the welfare of the Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain but obeys the orders of the dowager queen, and if he allows women to administer the state affairs and eunuchs to meddle with politics, then ruin is possible.
44. If words are eloquent but not legal, the mind
is sagacious but not tactful, the sovereign is versatile but performs his
duties not in accordance with laws and
45. If new
46. If the bounties and allowances of uncles and brothers exceed their merits, their badges and uniforms override their grades, and their residences and provisions are too extravagant, and if the lord of men never restrains them, then ministers will become insatiable. If ministers are insatiable, then ruin is possible.
47. If the ruler's sons-in-law and grandsons live behind the same hamlet gate with the commoners and behave unruly and arrogantly towards their neighbours, then ruin is possible.
Thus, portents of ruin do not imply certainty of ruin but liability to ruin.
Indeed, two Yaos
It is true, the tree breaks down because
If the sovereign of ten thousand chariots can
exercise tact and enforce law and thereby function as gale and rain to rulers
having portents of ruin, his annexation of
The lord of men has three precautions to take. If
the three precautions are complete, the state will be safe and he will be
prosperous; if the three precautions are not complete, the state will fall into
danger and his life will become precarious.
What are meant by the "three precautions"?
Whenever ministers memorialize the Throne the
faults of the authorities in power, the mistakes of the personnel in charge of
state affairs, and the actual conditions of the officials,
If the ruler does not by himself benefit the men he
loves
If the ruler dislikes the toil of governing the
state by himself and lets the ministers group together and administer state
affairs, and if in so doing he passes his handles and shifts his position
These are called "the three precautions unaccomplished". If the three precautions remain incomplete, the situation portends molestation and regicide.
In general, there are three kinds of molestation:
If ministers who hold the honour of chief vassals
have the key to the state government in their grip for patronizing the
officials and make the administration of foreign and home affairs necessarily
go through their approval; and, though there are worthy and upright personages,
if people disobeying them always have bad luck and those obeying them always
have good luck; then no official would dare to be loyal to the sovereign and
worry about state welfare
Again, suppose chief vassals distribute private
favours, have all powers to themselves, overawe the country by pretending to
have influence abroad, follow the like and hate of the sovereign with his
forced interpretation of the signs of fortune and misfortune, advantages and
Finally, in matters of court and jail administration as well as prohibition and punishment, if ministers have powers to themselves, their act as such is called "molestation through the application of penal laws".
In short, if the three precautions are not complete, the three molestations will arise; if the three precautions are complete, the three molestations will stop. If the sovereign succeeds in stopping and debarring these three molestations, he will attain supremacy.
The difficulty of the lord of men lies in his
confidence in men. Confiding in men, he is restrained by men.
Ministers, in relation to the ruler, have no kinship, but, solely because constrained by force of circumstances, serve him. Therefore, those who minister to a ruler, always watch the mental condition of their master without stopping even for a moment; whereas the lord of men remains idle and arrogant over them. This is the reason why the world sees cases of ruler-molestation and regicide.
If the lord of men has much confidence in his son, then wicked ministers will utilize his son to accomplish their selfish purposes. For illustration, Li Tai, while assisting the King of Chao, starved the Father Sovereign.
If the lord of men has much confidence in his
spouse, then wicked ministers will utilize his spouse to accomplish their
selfish purposes. For illustration, Actor Shih, while assisting Princess Li,
b.c.
Indeed, even the spouse who is so near and the son who is so dear to the sovereign are not trustworthy, much less can anybody else be trustworthy.
Besides, whether he be a ruler of ten thousand chariots or a ruler of one thousand chariots, the queen, the concubine, or the crown prince, even though he be the legitimate son, might hope for his early death.
How do I know it is so? Indeed, man and wife,
having no kinship between them, are intimate when mutually in love and distant
when not in love. Hence the saying: "If the mother is loved, the son is held in
the arms." If so, the contrary must run like this: "If the mother is unloved,
the son is cast aside." Men fifty years old are as fond of women as usual, but
women only thirty years old are falling off in beauty. If women falling off in
beauty have to serve men still fond of the fair sex, then they will be
neglected
It is only when the mother is the queen dowager and the son is the sovereign that decrees never fail to prevail and prohibitions never fail to function. Then she finds as much pleasure between man and woman as at the time when the late ruler was still alive, and under no suspicion can she have all the powers of the ruler of ten thousand chariots to herself. For such a reason, poisoning with wine and hanging in secret are practised.
Hence it is said in T`ao-wu's
Episodes of Ch`u has #### in place of ####.Spring and Autumn Annals: "Of the lords of men, those
who died of illness were not
Thus, Wang Liang liked horses, and Kou-chien, King of Yüeh, liked able-bodied men, merely for driving and fighting purposes. The physician sucks patients' cuts and holds their blood in his mouth, not because he is intimate with them like a blood relation, but because he expects profits from them. Likewise, when the cartwright finishes making carriages, he wants people to be rich and noble; when the carpenter finishes making coffins, he wants people to die early. Not that the cartwright is benevolent and the carpenter is cruel, but that unless people are noble, the carriages will not sell, and unless people die, the coffins will not be bought. Thus, the carpenter's motive is not a hatred for anybody but his profits are due to people's death. For the same reason, when the clique of the queen, the princess, the concubine, or the crown prince, is formed, they want the ruler to die early. For, unless the ruler die, their positions will not be powerful. Their motive is not a hatred for the ruler, but their profits are dependent on the ruler's death. Therefore the lord of men must specially mind those who will profit by his death.
For illustration, though the sun and the moon are surrounded by haloes, the causes of their eclipses are inside themselves. Similarly, though the ruler guards against what he hates, the causes of his calamity consist in what he loves.
For this reason, the intelligent sovereign
Taoist Thesaurus edition has #### in place of
####.
If compulsory labour service is frequent, the
people will feel afflicted; if the people are afflicted, powerful and
influential men will appear to the fore; if powerful and influential men make
their appearance, exemptions will multiply; and if exemptions multiply, the
nobles will, by accepting bribes from the people exempted from labour service,
become wealthy. To afflict the people and thereby enrich the nobles and to
vacate the august position and let ministers utilize it, is not a permanent
advantage to the world. Hence the saying: "If compulsory labour service is
rare, the people will feel safe; if the people are safe, the ministers will
gain no extra power; if the ministers have
Now, take for illustration the truism that water
According to the sayings handed down from remote
antiquity, as recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals,
whoever violates the law, launches an insurrection, and thereby commits high
treason, comes from among the high and noble ministers. Yet what laws and
orders guard against and penalties censure is always among the low and humble.
That being so, the people give up all hope of salvation and find nobody to
petition for relief. The chief vassals form juntas, obscure the ruler
en bloc, and maintain their intimate relationship in
secret but pretend in the open to mutual hatred in order to prove their
unselfishness, and work as the ears and eyes of one another in order to watch
for the sovereign's unguarded moments. Thus, surrounded and deluded, the lord
of men has no way to get news from outside and retains the sovereign's title
but not the reality while ministers have all laws to themselves and carry them
into effect at their discretion. Of such a ruler the Sons of Heaven of Chou
were good examples. In short, if the power
The fault of the lord of
men is: After having entrusted
Taoist Thesaurus edition has #### in place of ####.
If the lord of men casts the law aside and guards
against ministers with ministers, then those who love one another will
associate for wicked purposes and speak well of one
Those who minister to a ruler, unless they have good reputations and make frequent requests, cannot advance their careers; unless they act contrary to the law and take all powers to themselves, they cannot uplift their prestige; and, unless they pretend to loyalty and faithfulness, they cannot rid themselves of prohibitions. These three ways are means of deluding the sovereign and destroying the law.
The lord of men, when employing ministers, should not allow them, however wise and able they may be, to act contrary to the law and take all powers to themselves; should not allow them, however worthy and virtuous they may be, to claim any priority among the men of merit and take precedence of the hard-working people; and should not discard the law and refrain from restricting them, however loyal and faithful they may be. Such a ruler is called an illustrator of the law.
The lord of men is sometimes tempted to tasks and sometimes deluded by words; wherefore both tasks and words need due consideration.
Ministers who imprudently propose tasks, usually
If the proposition purports a small task but the
actual expenses are enormous, then, though meritorious services are performed,
the proposition is not one of faith. If the ministers whose propositions are of
no faith are found guilty, and if the tasks, though they provide results, get
no reward,
The minister, when he devises a project for his
master and fears disapproval, will make out a case and declare such a warning
as, "Whoever criticizes the project of this task is jealous of the projector."
Suppose the lord of men, keeping it in secret, never consults any other
minister. The rest of the ministers, frightened by the premonition, dare not
criticize the project. If these two sets of circumstances
The right way to be the sovereign is to make all
ministers understand the reasons why they are blamed for giving opinions and
why they are blamed for not giving opinions. If they utter words that have
neither beginning nor ending
The lord of men in keeping ministers in service
ought to know the motive and purpose
When the lord of men wants to accomplish a task, if
he does not understand its beginning and ending so as to clarify the object of
his desire, and then if he attempts to accomplish it, his work will gain no
advantage but will incur disadvantage instead. If he understands this
principle, he will trust to reason and get rid of avarice. The
Such is not the case with the deluded sovereign. For he estimates the income but never estimates the outgo. As a result, even though the outgo is twice as much as the income, he never notices the harm. Thus in name he gains but in fact he loses. If such is the case, the achievement will be little while the harm is great.
In general, an achievement implies a big income and
a small outgo. Only in such a case can it be called an
Those who do not know the right way to political
order, always say, "Never change ancient traditions, never remove existing
institutions." Change or no change, the sage does not mind. For he aims only at
the rectification of
If Yi Yin had made no reform on behalf of Yin and
Generally speaking, men hesitate to change ancient traditions because they are diffident about affecting the peace of the people. Indeed, not to change ancient traditions is to inherit the traces of disorder; to accord with the mind of the people is to tolerate villainous deeds. If the people are stupid and ignorant of disorder and the superior is weak-spirited and unable to reform traditions and institutions, it is a failure in the process of government.
The lord of men must be intelligent enough to know
the
The basis of this argument is found in the
"External and Internal Affairs" by Lord Shang, who had iron spears and heavy
shields around him whenever going out to provide against accidents. Likewise,
when Kuo Yen began to assume the reins of government, Duke Wên had an official
For the same reason, in dealing
It was Chao that, after boring the tortoise-shell,
counting the bamboo slips, and finding the omen saying, "Great luck," attacked
Yen.
b.c.
Chao once again bored the tortoise-shell, counted
the bamboo slips, and invaded Yen in the north with a view to resisting Ch`in
by molesting Yen.
b.c., when Ch`in and Yen were allies.b.c., when Ch`in and Yen were allies.
Thy servant, therefore, says: Chao's
tortoise-shell, even though not able to foresee the outcome of her campaign in
Yen, should have been able to foretell the victory of Ch`in's invasion at hand.
Ch`in, believing in the great luck of the expedition, expanded her territory in
fact and rescued Yen in the good cause.
At the outset of the founding of the state, Wey
faced the east for several years and completely conquered both T`ao and Wei.
Then she turned westward for several years to cope with Ch`in and, as a result,
lost land to Ch`in. This was not because such lucky stars as Fêng-lung,
Records of the Heavens that the appearance of Yung-hui
or planet Mars forecasts serious warfare, and that the ruler in whose direction
it appears is bound to incur territorial losses.
In ancient times, the early kings exerted their
forces to renovate the people and doubled their efforts to clarify the law. As
the law was made clear, loyal subjects were encouraged. As punishment was made
definite, wicked subjects were suppressed. It was Ch`in whose loyal subjects
were encouraged and wicked ones were suppressed and whose territory was
expanded and sovereign was glorified.
Kou-chien, King of Yüeh, believed in the Ta-p`êng
Tortoise and waged a war with Wu, but did not win, till finally he had to
surrender himself as vassal and went personally to serve the King of Wu.
b.c.b.c.
Similarly, whoever relies on other feudal lords,
endangers his native soil. For instance, Ts`ao, relying on Ch`i, turned a deaf
ear to Sung, so that when Ch`i attacked Ching, Sung destroyed Ts`ao. Hsing,
To-day, Han, being a small state, is relying upon
big powers. Her sovereign, paying little attention to the law, takes every word
from Ch`in. The above-mentioned small
Thy servant, therefore, says: If measures for
political order are clarified, the state, though small in size, will become
rich. If reward and punishment are dignified and of faith, the people, though
small in number, will become strong. If reward and punishment follow no
regulations, the state, however large in size, will have weak soldiers. For the
soil is no longer its territory, the people no longer its subjects. Without
territory and people, even Yao and Shun never could reign supreme nor could the
three dynasties
Moreover, when the sovereign gives
indiscriminately, ministers take inconsiderately. Those who discard legal
Hence the saying: "Who knows few things, should not be allowed to scheme for enterprises; who practises loyalty in small ways, should not be allowed to take charge of judicial administration."
Once King Kung of Ching and Duke Li of Chin fought
at Yen-ling. The Ching troops suffered a defeat. King Kung was wounded. During
the bloody battle, Tzŭ-fan, High Commissioner of the Army, was thirsty
and wanted some drink. His attendant,
Historical
Records has #### in place of #### (vide supra, p.
70, n. 3).
At the time when Wey was clarifying and
establishing laws and upholding mandates
There is an ancient proverb saying: "The family
that has a definite occupation, does not have to starve in time of famine; the
state that has definite laws, does not go to ruin in case of emergency."
Indeed, if the ruler discards definite laws and follows private opinions, then
ministers will pretend to wisdom and ability; if ministers pretend to wisdom
and ability, then laws and prohibitions will not
Of yore, Shun ordered officials to drain the Great Deluge. One official set himself to work before the order came, and accomplished merit. However, Shun executed him. Once Yü received the feudal lords in audience in the vicinity of Kuei-chi. As the Ruler of Fang-fêng arrived late, Yü beheaded him. From this viewpoint it is clear that if those who went ahead of orders were executed and those who lagged behind orders were beheaded, the ancients must have held conformity to orders in high esteem.
For illustration, if the mirror keeps clean and has
no obstacle, then the beautiful and the ugly can be compared; if the balance
keeps right and has no obstacle, then the light and the heavy can be weighed.
Indeed, when you shake the mirror, the mirror cannot keep clear; when you shake
the balance, the balance cannot keep even. The same is true of the law.
Therefore, the early kings took Tao as the constant standard, and the law as
the basis of government. For, if the basis is orderly, the name is exalted; if
the basis is confused, the name is extinguished. In general, wisdom, ability,
cleverness, and erudition, if properly employed, take effect; otherwise, all
come to nought. Therefore, though wisdom and ability are exerted,
The intelligent sovereign makes the people conform
to the law
The law-breakers, on the whole, always set
fabrications and make excuses in order thereby to seek
It is the duty of the sovereign
Every minister cherishes both selfish motive and
public justice. To refine his personality, improve his integrity, practise
public creeds, and behave unselfish in office,
The ruler keeps the minister in service with a calculating mind. So does the minister with a calculating mind serve the ruler. As both ruler and minister are equally calculating, each for himself, the minister never cares to injure his body and benefit the state, nor does the ruler want to injure the state and benefit the minister. By nature the minister would regard the injury of himself as unprofitable. By nature the ruler would think the injury of the state as merciless. In short, ruler and minister work together, each with a calculating mind.
In the face of a crisis, the minister may sacrifice his life, exert his wisdom, and apply his strength. He would do so only on account of the law.
Therefore, the early kings, in order to encourage ministers, made rewards clear, and, in order to overawe them, made penalties severe. For, when rewards and penalties were clarified, the people would risk their lives in the cause of their native soil; when the people were resolved to risk their lives, the army would become strong and the sovereign would be honoured. When reward and penalty were not clearly enacted, men of no merit would expect undue rewards; when men found guilty were pardoned by grace, the army would become weak and the sovereign would become ignoble. Therefore, the early kings and their worthy counsellors applied their strength and exerted their wisdom to make laws clear and penalties severe. Hence the saying: "That public and private interests must be clearly distinguished and laws and prohibitions must be carefully enacted, the early kings already understood."
Chapter XXXVIII. Discourse
on Virtue
Superior virtue is
unvirtue. Therefore it has virtue. Inferior virtue never loses sight of virtue.
Therefore it has no virtue.
Superior virtue is
non-assertion and without pretension. Inferior virtue asserts and makes
pretensions.
Superior benevolence acts
but makes no pretensions. Superior righteousness acts and makes
pretensions.
Superior propriety acts and
when no one responds to it, it stretches its arm and enforces its
rules.
Thus one leaves Tao and
then Teh appears. One leaves Virtue and then Benevolence appears. One leaves
Benevolence and then Righteousness appears. One leaves Righteousness and then
Propriety appears. The rules of Propriety are the semblance of loyalty and
faith, and the beginning of disorder.
Foreknowledge is the flower
of Tao, but of ignorance the beginning.
Therefore a great sportsman
abides by the solid and dwells not in the superficial. He abides in the fruit
and dwells not in the flower.
Therefore he discards the
latter and chooses the former.
Virtue is internal.
Acquirement is external. "Superior virtue is unvirtue" means that the mind does
not indulge in external things. If the mind does not indulge in external
things, the personality will become perfect. The personality that is perfect is
called "acquirement". In other words, acquirement is the acquirement of the
personality. In general, virtue begins with non-assertion, develops with
non-wanting, rests secure with non-thinking, and solidifies with non-using. If
it acts and wants, it becomes restless; if restless, it is not perfect. If put
into use and thought about, it does not solidify; if it does not solidify, it
cannot work successfully. If it is not perfect
The reason why men value non-assertion and
ipso
facto not emptiness. When he who rests empty does not assert, he does not
regard non-assertion as having a constant way. If he does not regard
non-assertion as having a constant way, he is
By "benevolence" is meant the love of men in a pleasant mood in one's innermost heart. It is to rejoice in the good luck of others and to lament on their bad luck. It is born of the sense of sheer necessity, but not of the want of reward. Hence the saying: "Superior benevolence acts but makes no pretensions."
"Righteousness" covers the manners
"Propriety" refers to the mode in which one's
feelings are expressed. It is concerned with the cultural
In general, when a man responds to external things, he does not know that the response reveals the propriety of his personality. The masses of the people practise propriety only to show respect for others, wherefore propriety is now cordial and again simple. The superior man practises propriety on purpose to cultivate his personality. Since it is practised on purpose to cultivate his personality, it is intrinsic in mind and forms superior propriety. Since superior propriety is intrinsic in mind and popular propriety changes from time to time, they do not respond to each other. Since they do not respond to each other, hence the saying: "Superior propriety acts and no one responds to it."
Though the masses of the people change propriety from time to time, yet the saintly man is always courteous and respectful, practising the rules of propriety which bind him hand and foot. In so doing he never slackens. Hence the saying: "Superior virtue stretches its arm and enforces its rules."
Tao accumulates; accumulation
Propriety is the mode expressive of feelings.
Imperial Library Edition has #### in place of
####.
In general, things that do not flourish together
are Yin
To act before affairs take place and move before principles are clear, is called foreknowledge. The foreknower makes arbitrary guesses with no special cause. How can I prove this? Once upon a time, Chan Ho was seated and his disciples were waiting upon him. When an ox mooed outside the gate, the disciples said, "It is a black ox but white is on its forehead." In response to this, Chan Ho said, "True, it is a black ox but the white is on its horns." Accordingly, they sent men out to investigate it and found the ox was black and its horns were wrapped with white cloth. To bewilder the minds of the masses with the accomplished tact of Chan Tzŭ is almost as brilliant as any gay flower. Hence the saying: "Foreknowledge is the flower of Reason."
Supposing by way of trial we discarded the
foresight of Chan Tzŭ and sent out an ignorant boy less than five feet
tall to investigate it, then he would know the ox was black
"A great sportsman"
Chapter LVIII. Adaptation
to Change
Whose government is
unostentatious, quite unostentatious, his people will be prosperous, quite
prosperous. Whose government is prying, quite prying, his people will be needy,
quite needy.
Misery, alas! is what
happiness rests upon. Happiness, alas! is what
misery is hidden in. But who foresees the catastrophe? It will not be
prevented.
What is ordinary becomes
again extraordinary. What is good becomes again unpropitious. This bewilders
people, and it happens constantly since times immemorial.
Therefore the saintly man
is square but not sharp, strict but not obnoxious, upright but not restraining,
bright but not dazzling.
Man encountered by misery feels afraid in mind. If he feels afraid in mind, his motives of conduct will become straight. If his motives of conduct are straight, his thinking processes will become careful. If his thinking processes are careful, he will attain principles of affairs. If his motives of conduct are straight, he will meet no misery. If he meets no misery, he will live a life as decreed by heaven. If he attains principles of affairs, he will accomplish meritorious works. If he can live a life as decreed by heaven, his life will be perfect and long. If he accomplishes meritorious works, he will be wealthy and noble. Who is perfect, long-lived, wealthy, and noble, is called happy. Thus, happiness originates in the possession of misery. Hence the saying: "Misery, alas! is what happiness rests upon" for accomplishing its merit.
When one has happiness, wealth and nobility come to
him. As soon as wealth and nobility come to him, his clothes and food become
good. As soon as his clothes and food become good, an arrogant attitude
appears. When an arrogant attitude appears, his conduct will become wicked and
his action unreasonable. If his conduct is wicked, he will come to an untimely
end. If his action is unreasonable, he will accomplish nothing. Indeed, to meet
the disaster of
Indeed, those who administer affairs by following
reason and principle never fail to accomplish tasks. Those who never fail to
accomplish tasks, can attain the honour and influence of the Son of Heaven for
their best or at least easily secure the rewards and bounties of ministers and
generals. Indeed, those who discard reason and principle and make arbitrary
motions, though they have the honour and influence of the Son of Heaven and the
feudal lords on the one hand and possess ten times
Everybody wants wealth, nobility, health, and longevity. Yet none can evade the disaster of poverty, lowliness, death, or untimely end. To have the want in mind for wealth, nobility, health, and longevity, and meet poverty, lowliness, death, or untimely end, in the long run, means the inability to reach what one wants to reach. In general, who misses the way he seeks and walks at random, is said to be bewildered. If bewildered, he cannot reach the place he wants to reach. Now the masses of the people cannot reach the place they want to reach. Hence the saying of "bewilderment".
That the masses of the people cannot reach the
place they want to reach, has been true since the opening of heaven and earth
till the present. Hence the saying: "The people have been bewildered from time
immemorial."
By "square" is implied the correspondence of the
internal with the external, the agreement of word with deed. By "strictness" is
implied the determination to die in the cause of fidelity, to take matters of
property and money easy. By "uprightness" is implied the sense of duty to stand
by
Chapter LIX. The Way to
Maintain Order in the State
For governing the people
and obeying heaven nothing is better than frugality.
Now consider that frugality
is said to come from early practice.
By early practice it is
said that we can accumulate an abundance of virtue. If one accumulates an
abundance of virtue, then there is nothing that cannot be overcome.
If nothing cannot be
overcome, then no one knows his limit. If no one knows his limit, one can have
possession of the state.
Who has possession of the
state's mother, may last and abide.
This is called the
possession of deep roots and of a staunch stem. To long life and to everlasting
activity, this is the way.
Sharpness and brightness, intuition and wisdom, are
The masses of the people, when using their mental energy, are in a great hurry. If in a great hurry, they waste too much of their energy. To waste too much energy is said to be extravagant. The saintly man, when using his mental energy, is reposed. Reposed, he consumes little energy. To consume a small amount of energy is said to be frugal. Frugality, called a tact, originates in reason and principle. The ability to be frugal, indeed, is due to obedience to reason and conformity to principle. The masses of the people, though caught by troubles and overtaken by disasters, are still not aware of the need of retirement and would not follow reason and principle. The saintly man even before he sees the signs of misery and disaster is already humble-minded and follows reason and principle. This is said to be early practice. Hence the saying: "Now consider that frugality is said to come from early practice."
Who knows how to govern the people, thinks and
worries in repose. Who knows how to obey heaven, keeps his sense-organs humble.
If one thinks and worries in repose,
Indeed, who can make the old virtue not go out and the spirit of peace come in every day, is a man of early practice. Hence the saying: "By early practice it is said that we can accumulate an abundance of virtue."
After one accumulates virtue, one's mind becomes
tranquil.
To find nothing invulnerable results from the accumulation of an abundance of virtue. Hence the saying: "If one accumulates an abundance of virtue, then there is nothing that cannot be overcome."
If one can easily overcome his enemies in warfare,
he will be able to annex All-under-Heaven. If his reputation spreads all over
the world, the people will obey him. Thus, when going forward, he can annex
All-under-Heaven; when turning backward, he finds the people obedient to him.
If his tact is profound, the masses of the people
In general, who first has the state and then loses
it, and who first has the body and then drives it to misery, cannot be called
able to have possession of the state and keep the safety of the body. Indeed,
who can have possession of the state, must be able to keep the Altar of the
Spirits of Land and Grain in security; who can keep the safety of the body,
must be able to live through the period of life as
As to the so-called "possession of the state's
mother", the mother is Tao. Tao appears in the craft whereby the state is
possessed. As one has possession of the craft whereby the state is possessed,
he is said to have possession of the state's mother. Indeed, Tao moves along
with the world, so that it lasts long in building life and abides forever in
keeping bounty. Hence the saying: "Who has possession of the state's mother may
last and abide." Trees have both widespread roots and straight roots. The
straight
Chapter LX. How to Be in
Office
Govern a big country as you
would fry small fish: (neither gut nor scale them).
If with Tao
All-under-Heaven is managed, even its ghosts will not haunt. Not only will its
ghosts not haunt, but its gods will not harm the people. Not only will its gods
not harm the people, but neither will its sages harm the people. Since neither
will do harm, therefore their virtues will be combined.
The craftsman, if he frequently changes his work,
will lose his accomplishment. The workman, if he frequently shifts his
occupation, will lose his accomplishment, too. If one man loses half-a-day's
accomplishment every day, in ten days he will lose five men's accomplishment.
If ten thousand men each lose half-a-day's accomplishment every day, in ten
days they will lose fifty thousand men's accomplishment. If so, the more
numerous those who frequently change their works are, the greater losses they
will incur. Likewise, if laws and decrees are altered,
People when ill hold physicians in esteem, and,
when miserable, hold ghosts in awe. When the sage is on the throne, the people
will have fewer desires. When the people have fewer desires, their blood and
spirit will become orderly and their behaviour and conduct reasonable. If blood
and spirit are orderly
The people of an orderly age and ghosts and gods do
not
If ghosts fall upon sick persons,
The sovereign and the people do not ruin each other while men and ghosts do not harm each other. Hence the saying: "Neither will do harm."
If the people dare not violate the law, then the
sovereign does not have to apply penalties on the one hand nor does he have to
work to the advantage of his own investments on the other. If the sovereign
neither has to apply penalties nor has to work to the advantage of his own
investments, the people will multiply and prosper. When the people are
multiplying and prospering, their savings and hoardings will flourish. To have
a people who multiply and prosper and whose savings and hoardings flourish, is
called to have possession of virtue. The so-called cursed person is one whose
soul is gone and whose mind is perturbed. If his mind is perturbed, he has no
virtue. If ghosts did not fall
Chapter XLVI. Moderation of Desire
When All-under-Heaven follows Tao, race-horses are reserved for hauling dung. When All-under-Heaven does not follow Tao, war horses are bred in the suburbs.
No greater crime than submitting to desire. No greater misery than not knowing sufficiency. No greater fault than avarice.
Therefore, who knows sufficiency's sufficiency is always sufficient.
The ruler who upholds Tao incurs no hatred from the
neighbouring enemies outside and bestows beneficence upon the people at home.
Verily, who incurs no hatred from the neighbouring enemies, observes the rules
of etiquette
On the contrary, if the ruler of men does not
uphold Tao, at home he will misgovern the people and abroad he will offend the
neighbouring states. If he misgoverns the people, the people will lose their
property; if he offend the neighbouring states, warfare will frequently take
place. If the people lose their property, the cattle will decrease; if warfare
takes place frequently, officers and soldiers will be exhausted. If cattle
decrease, war horses will become few; if officers and soldiers are exhausted,
the army will be jeopardized. If war horses are few, then even mares
When a man has wild desires, his inferences become
confused. When
Therefore the saintly men are never attracted to
the five colours
Therefore, if avarice is intense,
Chapter XIV. Praising the Mysterious
What we look at and is not seen is named Colourless. What we listen to and is not heard is named Soundless. What we grope for and is not grasped is named Bodiless.
These three things cannot further be analysed. Thus they are combined and conceived as a unity which on its surface is not clear and in its depth not obscure.
Forever and aye it remains unnamable, and again and again it returns home to non-existence.
This is called the form of the formless, the image of the imageless. This is called the transcendentally abstruse.
In front its beginning is not seen. In the rear its end is not seen.
By holding fast to the way of the antiquity control the present. And thereby understand the origin of the antiquity. This is called the rule of Tao.
Tao is the way of everything, the form of every
principle. Principles are the lines that complete things. Tao is the cause of
the completion of everything. Hence the saying: "It is Tao that rules
Things have their respective principles and
therefore b.c. that
Confucius passed by him, when he sang a song satirically blaming his not
retiring from the world (vide Confucian Analects, Bk.
XVIII, Ch. V).
Men rarely see living elephants. As they come by
the skeleton of a dead elephant, they imagine its living according to its
features. Therefore it comes to pass that whatever people use for imagining the
real is called "image".
Chapter I. Understanding
Tao
The Tao that can be traced
as a way is not the eternal Tao. The name that can be defined as a name is not
the eternal name. What has no name is the beginning of heaven and earth. What
has a name is the mother of the myriad things. Therefore it is said:
"He who desireless is foundThe spiritual of the world will
sound.But he who by desire is boundSees the mere shell of things
around."
These two things are the
same in source but different in name. Their sameness is called a mystery.
Indeed, it is the mystery of mysteries. Of all subtleties it is the
gate.
In general, principles are what distinguish the
square from the round, the short from the long, the coarse from the fine, and
the hard from the brittle. Accordingly, it is only after principles become
definite that things can attain Tao. Thus, definite principles include those of
existence and extinction, of life and death, and of rise and fall. Indeed,
anything that first exists and next goes to ruin, now lives and then dies, and
prospers at the beginning and declines afterward, cannot be said to be eternal.
Only that which begins with the creation of heaven and earth and neither dies
nor declines till heaven and earth disappear can be said
Chapter L. The Estimation
of Life
Appear in birth, disappear
in death.
There are thirteen
dependencies of life; there are thirteen dependencies of death. On thirteen
avenues men that live pass into the realm of death.
Now, what is the reason? It
is because they live life's intensity.
Yea, I understand that one
who takes good care of life, when travelling on land, will not fall a prey to
the bison or the tiger. When going among soldiers, he need not fear arms and
weapons. The bison finds no place wherein to insert its horns. The tiger finds
no place wherein to put his claws. Weapons find no place wherein to thrust
their blades. What is the reason? It is because he does not belong to the realm
of death.
Man begins in birth and ends in death. To begin is called to appear; to end, to disappear. Hence the saying: "Appear in birth, disappear in death."
The human body is composed of three hundred and
sixty joints with four limbs and nine passages as its important equipment. Four
limbs plus nine passages are thirteen in
As regards death, the thirteen equipments revert to their original status, and all depend upon death. Therefore, the dependencies of death are also thirteen. Hence the saying: "There are thirteen dependencies of life; there are thirteen dependencies of death."
On the whole, people who live by living life's
intensity, move all the time. When motion is exerted, they incur losses. If
motion does not stop, losses will occur
Therefore, the saintly man saves mental energy and
esteems the status of repose. Otherwise, conditions would become much worse
than the harm of bisons and tigers. True, bisons and tigers have lairs and
their motion and repose come on certain occasions. If you keep away from their
lairs and avoid the occasions of their activities, then you will be able to
evade their harm. However, as people know bisons and tigers have horns and
claws but do not know everything else has horns and claws, they cannot
In general, weapons and armour are for providing
against harm. Who clings firmly to life, though serving in the ranks, has no
mind of grudge and dispute. Without the mind of grudge and dispute, he finds no
place wherein to use the provisions against harm. This not only refers to the
troops in the wilderness. But it is also concerned with the saintly man who has
no mind to harm anybody when making his way through the world. If he has no
mind to harm anybody, he will find no harm from anybody. If he finds no harm
from anybody, he need not guard against anybody. Hence the saying: "When
travelling on land, he will not fall a prey to the bison or the tiger."
Likewise, he does not have to depend on the provisions against harm when
walking
It is the rational principle of heaven and earth that man takes no precaution against any kind of harm and never is harmed. As he merges in the course of heaven and earth, hence the saying: "He does not belong to the realm of death." Inasmuch as he moves and does not belong to the realm of death, he is said to be taking good care of life.
Chapter LXVII. The Three
Treasures
All-under-Heaven call me
great; but I resemble the unlikely. Now a man is great only because he
resembles the unlikely. Did he resemble the likely, how lasting, indeed, would
his mediocrity be!
Indeed, I have three
treasures which I cherish and treasure. The first is called compassion. The
second is called frugality. The third is called not daring to come to the front
of All-under-Heaven.
The compassionate can be
brave; the frugal can be magnificent; those who dare not come to the front of
All-under-Heaven can become perfect as chief vessels.
Now, if people discard
compassion and are brave; if they discard frugality and are magnificent; if
they discard modesty and are ambitious, they will surely die.
Indeed, the compassionate
will in attack be victorious, and in defence firm. Heaven when about to save
one will with compassion protect him.
Who loves his child, is compassionate to the child. Who clings firmly to life, is compassionate to himself. Who values successful accomplishment, is compassionate to tasks. The compassionate mother, regarding her infant child, always strives to establish the child's well-being. If she strives to establish the child's well-being, she will endeavour to rid the child of calamities. If she endeavours to rid the child of calamities, her reflection and consideration become thorough. If her reflection and consideration are thorough, she will attain the principles of affairs. If she attains the principles of affairs, she will certainly accomplish her purposes. If she is certain of accomplishing her purposes, she will not hesitate in her action. To make no hesitation is called "bravery". Now, the saintly man deals with the myriad affairs exactly in the same way as the compassionate mother considers the well-being of her child. Therefore, he finds reason for determined action. If he has reason for determined action, he will not hesitate in transacting affairs either. Thus, to make no hesitation is called "bravery"; unhesitating action is due to compassion. Hence the saying: "The compassionate can be brave."
The Duke of Chou said: "If it does not freeze hard
in winter days, grass and trees will not flourish in spring and summer." Thus,
even heaven and earth can neither always be extravagant nor always be frugal.
How much less can mankind be so? Therefore, the myriad things must have
prosperity and decline, the myriad affairs must have their rise and fall, the
state must have civil and military institutions, and government must have
reward and punishment. For this reason, if wise men frugally spend their money,
their families will become rich; if the saintly man treasures his
In general, anything that has a form can be easily
cut and easily trimmed. How can I prove this? Well, if the thing has form, it
has length; if it has length, it has size; if it has size, it has a shape; if
it has a shape, it has solidity; if it has solidity, it has weight; and if it
has weight, it has colour. Now, length, size, shape, solidity, weight, and
colour are called principles. As these are fixed, the thing can be easily cut.
Therefore, if you present discussions first in the government and draw your
conclusion from them later, then
Thus, if one dare not come to the front of
Who is compassionate to his children, dare not stop
giving them clothes and food. Who is compassionate to himself, dare not go
astray from laws and regulations. Who is compassionate to squares and circles,
dare not discard the compasses and squares. For the same reason, if one in the
face of warfare is compassionate to the rank and file, he will overcome his
enemies in attack; if compassionate to war implements, he will make the
Indeed, who can perfect himself and thoroughly
follow the principles of the myriad things, will eventually live a heavenly
life. A heavenly life refers to the right way of human nature.
Chapter LIII. Gaining
Insight
If I have ever so little
knowledge, I shall walk in the Grand Course. It is but expansion that I must
fear.
The Grand Course is very
plain, but people are fond of by-paths.
When the palace is very
splendid, the fields are very weedy and the granaries very empty.
To wear ornaments and gay
clothes, to carry sharp swords, to be excessive in drinking and eating, to have
a redundance of costly articles, this is the pride of robbers.
Surely, this is
non-Course.
The so-called Grand Course in the text is the
orthodox way. The so-called hypocrisy
If litigations are numerous, granaries and
storehouses are empty, and certain people practise frivolity and extravagance
as folkways, then the state will be injured
Indeed, the Yü
Chapter LIV.
Wang's note has #### in
place of ####. I disagree with him. Cultivating the Observing
Ability
"What is well planted is not
uprooted;What is well preserved cannot be
looted!"
By sons and grandsons the
sacrificial celebrations shall not cease.
Who cultivates it in his
person, his virtue is genuine.
Who cultivates it in his
family, his virtue is overflowing.
Who cultivates it in his
village, his virtue is lasting.
Who cultivates it in his
country, his virtue is abundant.
Who cultivates it in
All-under-Heaven, his virtue is universal.
Therefore,
By one's person one looks
at persons.
By one's family one looks
at families.
By one's village one looks
at villages.
By one's country one looks
at countries.
By one's All-under-Heaven
one looks at All-underHeaven.
How do I know that
All-under-Heaven is such? Through IT.
Men, whether stupid or intelligent, either accept
or reject things. If reposed and secure, they would know the causes of
misfortune and good luck. Excited by likes and dislikes and beguiled by obscene
objects, they become different and perturbed. The reason for this is that they
are attracted to external things and perturbed by likes and tastes. In fact,
repose involves the meaning of accepting likes and rejecting dislikes; security
purports the estimation of misfortune and good luck. Now, they are changed by
likes and tastes and attracted to external things. Since they are attracted to
external things and thereby led astray, hence the saying of "being uprooted".
Such is not the case with the saintly man, however. Once he sets up his
principle of acceptance and rejection, then though he sees things he likes, he
is never attracted to them. Not to be attracted to them is said to "be not
uprooted". Once he sets up the basis of devotion, then though there may be
things that he likes,
Sons and grandsons act upon this Tao and thereby maintain the ancestral halls. The indestructibility of the ancestral halls means "the everlasting duration of the sacrificial celebrations".
To accumulate energy is virtue to oneself. To
accumulate property is virtue to one's family. To tranquillize the people is
virtue to the village, to the state, and to All-under-Heaven. Since one refines
his personality and external things cannot perturb his mind, hence the saying:
"Who cultivates it in his person, his virtue is genuine." By "genuineness" is
meant "firmness of prudence".
Who manages his family affairs, his decision is never moved by useless things. If this is so, his resources will be overflowing. Hence the saying: "Who cultivates it in his family, his virtue is overflowing."
If the squire of the village acts upon this principle, then homes that have abundance will multiply. Hence the saying: "Who cultivates it in his village, his virtue lasts long and spreads wide."
If the governor of the country acts upon this
principle, then villages that have virtue will multiply. Hence the saying: "Who
cultivates it in his country,
kuo (####) in place of pang (####),
both having practically the same meaning. Han Fei Tzŭ's commentary having
#### instead of #### is correct.
If the ruler of All-under-Heaven acts upon this principle, then the livelihood of the people will always receive his beneficence. Hence the saying: "Who cultivates it in All-under-Heaven, his virtue is universal."
If the self-cultivator differentiates the superior
man from the small man by means of this principle, and if the squire of the
village, the governor of the country, and the ruler of All-under-Heaven, all
follow this principle in making a comprehensive survey of their respective
gains and losses, there can be no single mistake in a myriad cases. Hence the
saying: "By one's person one looks at persons. By one's family one looks at
families. By one's village one looks at villages. By one's country one looks at
countries. By one's All-under-Heaven one looks at All-under-Heaven. How
Chapter XLVI. Moderation of
Desire
Vide
supra, p. 187. Italics my addition, and so throughout this chapter.
When All-under-Heaven
follows Tao, there is no emergency, tranquillity increases daily,
When All-under-Heaven does not follow Tao, there is constant warfare, and self-defence against each other lasts for years without stopping, till the troops cannot return home, even though armour and helmets bring about lice and moths and swallows and sparrows nest in the tents of the generals. Hence the saying: "War horses are bred in the suburb."
Once a man of Ti presented to Duke Wên of Chin fox
furs with thin haired tails and leopard fur with black spots. Accepting the
guest's presents, Duke Wên heaved a sigh, b.c.) of Chou ordered Ch`u to punish Hsü. King Yen,
as he loved the people, refused to offer resistance, till his forces were
completely routed by Ch`u.
Earl Chih, having annexed the fiefs of Fan and
The Ruler of Yü wanted the team of the Ch`ü breed and the Jade from Ch`ui-chi and took no advice from Kung Chi-Ch`i. In consequence his state went to ruin and he himself to death. Hence the saying: "No greater fault than avarice."
Any country, if able to preserve itself, is fair,
and, if able to attain hegemony, is excellent. Anybody, if able to live on, is
fair, and, if wealthy and noble, is excellent. Therefore, if not
self-destructive, the state will not go to ruin and the self will not be
killed. Hence the saying: "Who knows sufficiency's sufficiency
Chapter LIV.
Wang Hsien-shen's note has
#### in place of ####. I disagree with him. Cultivating of the Observing
Ability
Vide
supra, pp. 203-4.
King Chuang of Ch`u, after winning the war with
Chin,
b.c.
Chapter XXVI. The Virtue of
Gravity
The heavy is of the light
the root, and rest is motion's master.
Therefore the superior
man
in his daily walk does not depart from gravity. Although he
may have magnificent sights, he calmly sits with liberated mind.
But how is it when the
ruler of ten thousand chariots in his personal conduct is too light for
All-under-Heaven? If he is too light, he will lose his vassals. If he is too
restless, he will lose the throne.
If the ruler has the reins of government in his grip, he is said to be "heavy". If the ruler does not depart from his seat, he is said to be "resting". If heavy, he can control the light. If resting, he can subdue the moving. Hence the saying: "The heavy is of the light the root, and rest is motion's master. Therefore the superior man in his daily work does not depart from gravity."
The state is the gravity of the ruler of men. The
Father Sovereign while still alive alienated the state. In other words, he
departed from gravity. Therefore, though he enjoyed himself at Tai and
Yün-chung, he had already slipped the Chao State off his grip. Thus, the Father
Sovereign, having been a sovereign of ten thousand chariots, became in his
personal conduct too light for vide infra, Chap. XL).
Chapter XXXVI. The
Revelation of Secrets
When you are about to
contract anything, you would first expand it. When you are about to weaken
anything, you would first strengthen it. When you are about to set
down anything, you would first set it up. When
you are about to take, you would give.
This is a revelation of the
secrets whereby the soft conquer the hard and the weak the strong.
As the fish should not
escape from the deep, so should the state's sharp tools not be shown to
anybody.
The position that is influential is the deep to the
ruler of men. Who rules men, his position must be more
True, reward and punishment are the state's sharp tools. If held in the hands of the ruler, they control the ministers. If held in the hands of the ministers, they control the ruler. If the ruler shows the tool of reward, the ministers will minimize it and thereby distribute private favours. If the ruler shows the tool of punishment, the ministers will aggravate it and thereby overawe the people. Since if the ruler of men shows the tool of reward, the ministers will abuse his position, and if he shows the tool of punishment, they will utilize his authority, hence the saying: "The state's sharp tools should not be shown to anybody."
The King of Yüeh, after surrendering himself to Wu,
b.c.b.c.b.c. Lake Five was the present T`ai Lake near
Soochow.
When Duke Hsien of Chin was about to raid Yü, he
presented to them a jade and a team of horses. When Earl Chih was about
To carry out a plan before it takes shape and
thereby accomplish a great achievement in All-under-Heaven, is "a revelation of
secrets". To be small and weak but willing to keep humble, is the way "the weak
conquer the strong".
Chapter LXIII. Considering
Beginnings
Assert
non-assertion.
Practise
non-practice.
Taste the
tasteless.
Make great the
small.
Make much the
little.
Requite hatred with
virtue.
Contemplate a difficulty
when it is easy. Manage a great thing when it is small.
The most difficult
undertakings in All-under-Heaven necessarily originate while easy, and the greatest
undertakings in All-under-Heaven necessarily
originate while small.
Therefore, the saintly man
to the end does not venture to play the great, and thus he can accomplish his
greatness.
Rash promises surely lack
faith, and many easy things surely involve in many difficulties.
Therefore, the saintly man
regards everything as difficult, and thus to the end encounters no
difficulties.
What has a form, always begins its greatness from
smallness. What endures a long time, always begins its abundance from scarcity.
Hence the saying: "The most difficult undertakings in All-under-Heaven
necessarily originate while easy, and the greatest undertakings in
All-under-Heaven necessarily originate while small."
A dike ten thousand feet long begins its crumbling
with holes made by ants; a room one hundred feet square begins its burning with
sparks of fire
Book of Shih Tzŭ, it is said: "He who is old in
age plasters cracks and takes precautions against chimneys, wherefore
throughout his life he meets no fire disaster. This, however, he never knows to
regard as virtue."
Pien Ch`iao once had an interview with Duke Huan of
Ch`i.
Historical
Records has #### in place of ####.
Ten days later, Pien Ch`iao again had an interview and said: "The disease of Your Highness is in the flesh and skin. If not treated now, it will go still deeper." To this advice Marquis Huan made no reply. Pien Ch`iao went out. Marquis Huan was again displeased.
After ten more days, Pien Ch`iao had another interview and said: "The disease of Your Highness is in the stomach and intestines. If not treated now, it will go still deeper." Again Marquis Huan made no reply to the advice. Pien Ch`iao went out. Marquis Huan was again displeased.
After ten more days, Pien Ch`iao, looking at
Marquis Huan, turned back and ran away. The Marquis sent men out to ask him.
"Diseases that are in the capillary tubes," said Pien Ch`iao, "can be reached
by hot water or flat irons. Those in the flesh and skin can be reached by metal
or stone needles. Those in the stomach and intestines can be reached by
well-boiled drugs. But after they penetrate the bones and marrow, the patients
are at the mercy of the Commissioner
In the course of five more days, Marquis Huan began to feel pain in his body, and so sent men out to look for Pien Ch`iao, who, however, had already gone to the Ch`in State. Thus ended the life of Marquis Huan.
For this reason, good physicians, when treating
diseases, attack them when they are still in the capillary tubes. This means
that they manage things when they are small. Hence,
Chapter LXIV. Mind the
Minute
What is still at rest is
easily kept quiet. What has not as yet appeared is easily prevented. What is
still feeble is easily broken. What is still minute is easily
dispersed.
Treat things before they
come into existence. Regulate things before disorder begins. The stout tree has
originated from a tiny rootlet. A tower of nine stories is raised by heaping up
bricks of clay. A thousand li's journey begins with a foot.
He that makes mars. He that
grasps loses.
The saintly man does not
make; therefore he loses not. The people on undertaking an enterprise are
always near completion, and yet they fail.
Remain careful to the end
as in the beginning and you will not fail in your enterprise.
Therefore the saintly man
desires to be desireless, and does not prize articles difficult to obtain. He
learns to be not learned, and reverts to what
multitudes of people pass by.
He assists the myriad
things in their natural development, but he does not venture to
interfere.
Of yore, when Prince of Chin, Ch`ung-erh, was
living in exile, once he passed through the Chêng
When Duke Hsien of Chin with the Jade from Ch'ui-chi as present was going to borrow the way through Yü, to attack Kuo, High Officer Kung Chi-ch`i admonished the Ruler of Yü, saying: "The request should not be granted. When the lips are gone, the teeth are cold. Yü and Kuo ought to rescue each other, not because they want to place each other under any obligation, but because if Chin destroys Kuo to-day, to-morrow Yü will follow on its heels to ruin." The Ruler of Yü, taking no advice from him, accepted the jade and lent them the way. After taking Kuo, Chin withdrew and destroyed Yü in turn.
Thus, these two ministers both strove to suppress troubles when they were still in capillary tubes, but both their rulers failed to adopt their counsels. Thus, Shu Chan and Kung Chi-ch`i were the Pien Ch`iao of Chêng and Yü, to whose words both their rulers paid no heed. As a result, Chêng was routed and Yü destroyed. Hence the saying: "What is still at rest is easily kept quiet. What has not as yet appeared is easily prevented."
Chapter LII. Returning to
the Origin
When All-under-Heaven takes
its beginning, Tao becomes the mother of All-under-Heaven.
As one knows his mother, so
she in turn knows her child; as she quickens her child, so he in turn keeps to
his mother, and to the end of life he is not in danger. Who closes his mouth,
and shuts his sense-gates, in the end of life he will encounter no trouble; but
who opens his mouth and meddles with affairs, in the end of life he cannot be
saved.
Who beholds smallness is
called enlightened. Who preserves tenderness is called strong. Who uses Tao's
light and return home to its enlightenment does not surrender his person to
perdition. This is called practising the eternal.
Of old, Chow made chop-sticks of ivory. Thereby was
the Viscount of Chi frightened. He thought: "Ivory chop-sticks would not be
used with earthen-wares but with cups made of jade or of rhinoceros horns.
Further, ivory chop-sticks and jade cups would not go with the soup made of
beans and coarse greens but with the meat of
In the course of five years, Chow made piles of meat in the form of flower-beds, raised roasting pillars, walked upon mounds of distiller's grains, and looked over pools of wine. In consequence ended the life of Chow. Thus, by beholding the ivory chop-sticks, the Viscount of Chi foreknew the impending catastrophe of All-under-Heaven. Hence the saying: "Who beholds smallness is called enlightened."
Kou-chien, after surrendering himself to Wu, held
shield and spear and became a front guard of the horses
Chapter LXXI. The Disease
of Knowledge
To know the unknowable,
that is elevating. Not to know the knowable, that is sickness.
Only by becoming sick of
sickness can we be without sickness.
The saintly man is not
sick. Because he is sick of sickness, therefore he is not sick.
The King of Yüeh could become hegemonic because he
was not sick of surrender. King Wu could become
Chapter LXIV. Mind the
Minute
Vide
supra, pp. 215-16.
Once a countryman of Sung came by a jade stone,
which he presented to Tzŭ-han.
Once Wang Shou carried books on his back when
travelling, and met Hsü Fêng in Chou. To him Hsü
Indeed, everything has a definite shape. It should accordingly be put to use. Accordingly, one should follow its shape. Therefore, if reposed, one should stand on Teh; if moving, he should act on Tao.
Once a man of Sung made for the ruler mulberry
leaves of ivory.
Book of
Lieh Tzŭ reads #### for ####.
When Lieh Tzŭ heard this, he said: "Supposing
heaven and earth made a leaf in three years, then things that have leaves would
be few." Therefore, if you do not count on the natural resources of heaven and
earth but look to one man for everything, or if you do not follow the course of
reason and principle but learn from the wisdom of one man, it is the same as to
make a single leaf in three years. For this reason, farming in winter, even the
Master of Grains
Chapter XLVII. Viewing the
Distant
"Without passing out of the doorThe Course of All-under-Heaven I
prognosticate.Without peeping through the
windowThe Way of Heaven I contemplate.The farther one goes,The less one knows."
Therefore the saintly man
does not travel, and yet he has knowledge. He does not see things, and yet he
defines them. He does not labour, and yet he completes.
Holes are the doors and windows of the spirit. The
ears and the eyes are exhausted by sounds and colours. Mental energy is
exhausted by outer attractions. As a result, there is no master inside the
body. If there is no master inside the body, then though all kinds of good and
bad luck pile like hills and mountains, there is no way to know them. Hence the
saying: "Without passing out of the door the Course of All-under-Heaven I
prognosticate.
Once upon a time Viscount
When Prince Pai Shêng
b.c., Tzŭ-hsi, a
half-brother of King P`ing, called Shêng back to Ch`u and enfeoffed him with
the district of Yen and the title of Duke of White. Thenceforth Prince Shêng
always planned to avenge his father on the Chêngs, but his plan was hampered
twice by Tzŭ-hsi, till he was forced to assassinate Tzŭ-hsi and
cause a rebellion against King Hui.
Chapter XLI. Sameness in
Difference
When a superior scholar
hears of Tao, he endeavours to practise it.
When an average scholar
hears of Tao, he will sometimes practise it and sometimes lose it.
When an inferior scholar
hears of Tao, he will greatly ridicule it. Were it not thus ridiculed, it would
as Tao be insufficient.
Therefore the poet
says:
The Tao-enlightened seem dark and
black,The Tao-advanced seem going back,The Tao-straight-levelled seem rugged and
slack.
The high in virtue resembles a
vale,The purely white in shame must
quail,The staunchest virtue seems to
fail.
The solidest virtue seems not
alert,The purest chastity seems
pervert,The greatest square will rightness
desert.
The largest vessel becomes complete
slowly,The loudest sound is heard
rarely,The greatest form has no shape
concrete."
Tao so long as it remains
latent is unnameable. Yet Tao alone is good for imparting and
completing.
King Chuang, for three years after he took the
reins of government, issued no decree and formulated no policy. Therefore, one
day the Right Commissioner of the Army, when attending on the Throne, made
before the King an intimation, saying: "There is a bird which has perched or a
hill-top in the south. For three years it has neither fluttered nor flown nor
sung but kept silent without making any sound. What is the name of that bird?"
In reply the King said: "For three years it has not fluttered in order thereby
to grow its wings and feathers, and has neither flown nor sung in order thereby
to look at the conditions of the people. Though it has not flown, yet once it
starts flying, it will soar high up into the sky. Though it has not sung, yet
once it starts singing, it will surprise everybody. Leave
In the course of half a year, the King began to
administer the state affairs himself, abolishing ten things, establishing nine
things, censuring five chief vassals, and appointing six hitherto unknown
personages to office, with the immediate result that the state became very
orderly. In the meantime he raised an army to punish Ch`i and defeated them at
Hsü-chou.
Historical Records it was King Wei and not King Chuang
of Ch`u who besieged the Ch`i forces at Hsü-chou in 333 b.c.
Chapter XXXIII. The Virtue
of Discrimination
One who knows others is
clever, but one who knows himself is englightened.
One who conquers others is
powerful, but one who conquers himself is mighty.
One who knows contentment
is rich and one who pushes with vigour has will.
One who loses not his place
endures.
One who may die but will
not perish, has life everlasting.
When King Chuang of Ch`u was thinking of attacking
Yüeh, Chuang Tzŭ admonished him, asking: "For what
li. This proves the weakness of her army. Again, Chuang
Ch`iao has dared robberies within the boundaries of the state, but no
magistrate has been able to stop him. This proves the disorder of her
government. Thus, Your Majesty has been suffering not less weakness and
disorder than Yüeh and yet wants to attack Yüeh. This proves that Your
Majesty's wisdom is like the eyes." Thereupon the King gave up the plan.
Therefore, the difficulty of knowledge lies not in knowing others but in
knowing oneself. Hence the saying: "One who knows himself is enlightened."
Once, when Tzŭ-hsia saw Tsêng Tzŭ, Tsêng Tzŭ asked, "Why have you become so stout?" "Because I have been victorious in warfare," replied Tzŭ-hsia. "What do you mean by that?" asked Tsêng Tzŭ. In reply Tzŭ-hsia said: "Whenever I went in and saw the virtue of the early kings I rejoiced in it. Whenever I went out and saw the pleasure of the rich and noble I rejoiced in it, too. These two conflicting attractions waged a war within my breast. When victory and defeat still hung in the balance, I was thin. Since the virtue of the early kings won the war, I have become stout." Therefore the difficulty of volition lies not in conquering others but in conquering oneself. Hence the saying: "One who conquers himself is mighty."
Chapter XXVII. The Function
of Skill
"Good Travellers leave no trace nor
track,Good speakers show no fault nor
lack,Good counters need no counting
rack.
"Good lockers bolting bars need
not,Yet none their locks can loose.Good binders need no string nor
knot,Yet none unties their noose."
Therefore the saintly man
is always a good saviour of man, for there are no outcast people. He is always
a good saviour of things, for there are no outcast things. This is called
applied enlightenment.
Thus the good man does not
respect multitudes of men. The bad man respects the people's wealth. Who does
not esteem multitudes nor is charmed by their wealth, though his knowledge be
greatly confused, he must be recognized as profoundly mysterious.
Of old, there were carved jade plates in Chou. Once Chow sent Chiao Li to get them, but King Wên would not give them away. Later, Fei Chung came for them, whereupon King Wên gave them out. It was because Chiao Li was worthy and Fei Chung was not a follower of Tao. Inasmuch as Chou disliked to see any worthy man advancing his career under King Chow, King Wên gave Fei Chung the plates. King Wên raised T`ai-kung Wang from the bank of the Wei River because he held him in high esteem, and presented Fei Chung with the jade plates because he loved his usefulness. Hence the saying: "Who does not esteem multitudes nor is charmed by their wealth, though his knowledge be greatly confused, he must be recognized as profoundly mysterious."
T`ang had already subjugated Chieh. Fearing lest
All-under-Heaven should speak of him as covetous, he transferred the rule over
All-under-Heaven to Wu Kuang. Again, fearing lest Wu Kuang should accept the
throne, he sent men to persuade Wu Kuang that T`ang having killed the ruler
wanted to pass the bad reputation to him and so transferred the rule over
All-under-Heaven to him. In consequence, Wu Kuang plunged into a river.
King Wu of Ch`in ordered Kan Mu to choose the post
he wanted, Grand Chamberlain or Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Tzŭ-yü once introduced Confucius to the Prime
Minister of Shang.
King Hui of Wey called a conference of the feudal lords at Chiu-li with a view to restoring the supreme authority to the Son of Heaven. Thereupon P`êng Hsi said to the Ruler of Chêng: "Your Highness had better not listen to him. Big powers dislike the existence of the Son of Heaven. Smaller states profit by it. If Your Highness sides with the big powers and does not listen to him, then how can the Wey State together with smaller ones restore the supreme authority to the Son of Heaven?"
When the Chins were attacking Hsing, Duke Huan of
Ch`i thought of rescuing it. Thereupon Pao Shu said: "Too early. Hsing is not
yet going to ruin. Chin is not yet exhausted. If Chin is not exhausted, Ch`i
cannot become very influential. Moreover, the merit of supporting a state in
danger is not as great as the virtue of reviving a ruined one. Your Highness
had better rescue it later so as to exhaust Chin! The result
When Tzŭ-hsü was making his escape, a frontier patrol caught him. Tzŭ-hsü said: "The authorities want me because they think I have a beautiful pearl. Now I have already lost it. But I will say that you have seized and swallowed it." Thereupon the patrol released him.
Ch`ing Fêng had caused a civil war in Ch`i and was thinking of seeking refuge in Yüeh. His relatives said: "Chin is near. Why won't you go to Chin?" "Yüeh is far," replied Ch`ing Fêng, "and so is good for seeking safety." "If your rebellious nature can be changed," said the relatives, "it is all right to stay in Chin; if it cannot be changed, though you go far away to Yüeh, will you be safe there?"
When Earl Chih demanded territory from Viscount
Hsüan of Wey, the latter thought of not giving. "Why is Your Highness not going
to give?" asked Jên Chang. "For no reason," replied Viscount Hsüan, "he is
demanding land from us. Therefore I am not going to give." "If he demands
territory from us without any reason," said Jên Chang, "other neighbouring
countries will be afraid of the same demand. If his greed grows insatiable,
All-under-Heaven will worry about it. If Your Highness gives him land now, he
will become arrogant and slight his enemies and the neighbouring countries will
out of common fear consolidate their friendship. If mutually friendly troops
cope with the country slighting its enemies, the life of Earl Chih will not
last long. It is said in the Book of Chou, `When about
to conquer anybody, be sure to assist him; when about to take, be sure to
give.' Your Highness had better give and make Earl Chih arrogant. Besides, why
should Your Highness hesitate to scheme for the Chih Clan with the rest of the
world instead of making ourselves alone the target of the Chihs?" "Right,"
replied the Viscount, and, accordingly, gave out a fief of ten thousand
families. Thereby Earl Chih was greatly pleased. Then he also demanded
territory from Chao. The Chaos refused to give, wherefore he besieged
Chin-yang. It came to pass
Once Duke K`ang of Ch`in built a tower taking three years. In the meantime, the Chings raised an army and were about to attack Ch`i. Thereupon Jên Wang said to the Duke: "Famine calls in invaders, pestilence calls in invaders, compulsory labour service calls in invaders, civil war calls in invaders. For three years Your Highness has been building the tower. Now the Chings are raising an army and are about to attack Ch`i, thy servant is afraid they will fight Ch`i in name but raid Ch`in in fact. Better take precautions against their invasion." Accordingly, Ch`in made military preparations on its eastern border, wherefore the Chings actually halted their expedition.
Once Ch`i attacked Sung. Sung sent Ts`ang-sun
Tzŭ to ask for reinforcements from Ching. The King of Ching, greatly
pleased, promised him reinforcements in a very encouraging
Once Marquis Wên of Wey wanted to borrow the way
through Chao to attack Central Hills. Marquis Shu of Chao at first thought of
not letting him have the way. Thereupon Chao K`ê said: "Your Highness is
mistaken. Suppose Wey attack Central Hills and does not win, Wey will then
cease hostilities. Should she cease hostilities, she will fall into contempt
while Chao will thereby increase her own prestige. Even though Wey succeeds in
taking Central Hills, she will not be able to maintain her rule over the new
territory across Chao. This will eventually mean that Wey uses her troops but
Chao gains their conquered territory. Therefore, be sure to grant their request
in a very encouraging
Ch`ih-i Tzŭ-p`i was working for Viscount
T`ien Ch`êng. When Viscount T`ien Ch`êng left Ch`i and was making an escape to
Yen, Ch`ih-i Tzŭ-p`i carried his pass along and followed him. Upon their
arrival at Hope Town Tzŭ-p`i said: "Has Your Highness ever heard the
story of the snakes in a dry swamp? As the swamp was drying up and the snakes
had to move away, the small snake said to the big one: `If you go in the front
and I follow from behind, men will think it is nothing but the migration of
snakes, and some of them might kill you. Better let our mouths hold each other.
And will you carry me on your back while we are moving onward? Then men will
regard me as ruler
Once a man of Wên went to Chou, but the Chous would
not admit any alien. "An alien?" asked a Chou official. "No, a native" was the
reply. The official then asked him about the alley he was living in, but he did
not know.
Vide Book
of Poetry, Pt. II, Bk. VI, "The Decade of Pei Shan."
Now that Your Majesty is the Son of Heaven, thy servant is one of his subjects. Then can thy servant be both a subject and an alien to His Majesty? So, thy servant said he was a native." Thereupon the Ruler ordered him to be released.
King Hsüan of Han once asked Chiu Liu: "I, the
King, want to appoint to office both Kung Chung and Kung Shu. Will it be safe?"
"No, it will not be safe," replied Chiu Liu. "As Chin employed the Six Nobles,
the state was eventually partitioned; as Duke Chien employed both Ti`en Ch`êng
and Kan Chih, he was murdered in the long run; and as Wey employed both
Hsi-shou and Chang Yi, all the territory to the west of the Yellow River was
lost as a result. Now suppose Your Majesty employ both of them. Then the more
powerful one will form his own faction inside
Once upon a time, Shao Chi-mei was drunk and asleep
and lost his fur garment. The Ruler of Sung
Imperial
Library has #### in place of ####.Book of
History has #### "Commandment against Wine" in place of ####. The
"Announcement to K`ang" was composed of the address of King Wu to one of his
younger brothers, Fêng, also called
Kuan Chung and Hsi P`êng accompanied Duke Huan in the expedition against Ku-chu. When spring was gone and winter came again, they went astray and lost the way. Thereupon Kuan Chung said: "The wisdom of old horses is trustworthy." So they let old horses go of themselves and followed them from behind, till they found the way. As they went onward, there was no water in the mountains. Thereupon Hsi P`êng said: "Ants live on the sunny side of the mountain in winter and on the shady side in summer. Wherever there is an ant-hill one inch high, there is always water underneath it." So they dug the ground and found water. Thus, Kuan Chung despite his saintliness and Hsi P`êng despite his intelligence never hesitated to learn from old horses and ants what they did not know. Men of to-day, however low their mentality may be, never think of learning from the wisdom of saintly men. Is it not a great fault?
Once upon a time, somebody presented the elixir of
life to the King of Ching. The court usher held it in his hand and entered the
palace. There the guard asked him, "May I eat it?" "Of course" was the reply.
The guard, accordingly, took it away from the usher and ate it. Enraged
thereby, the King sentenced him to death. The guard then sent men to persuade
the King, saying: "Thy servant asked the usher. The usher
T`ien Ssŭ once deceived the Ruler of Tsou,
wherefore the Ruler of Tsou was about to send men to kill him. Fearing the
penalty, T`ien Ssŭ appealed to Hui Tzŭ for help. Hui Tzŭ,
accordingly, interviewed the Ruler of Tsou, saying: "Now suppose someone look
at Your Highness with one eye shut, what will Your Highness do to him?" "I will
put him to death," replied the Ruler. "Yet the blind man shuts both his eyes.
Why don't you kill him?" asked Hui Tzŭ. "It is because by nature he
cannot help shutting his eyes," replied the Ruler. "Well, T`ien Ssŭ
deceived the Ruler
Duke Mu of Lu sent out the various princes to take
up office at the court of Chin and the court of Ching. Thereupon Li Chü said:
"Suppose we employ men from Yüeh to rescue our drowning sons. Then though the
Yüehs are good swimmers, our sons' lives would not be saved. Suppose a fire
burst out and we fetch water from the sea. Then though the water of the sea is
abundant, the fire would not go into extinction. Thus, distant water cannot put
out a fire at hand. Now, though Chin and Ching are strong,
Yen Sui was not on good terms with the Ruler of
Chou, wherefore the Ruler of Chou
Book of
Chou has #### in place of ####.
Chang Ch`ien, Premier of Han, was ill and about to die. Kung-ch`êng Wu-chêng took thirty taels of gold along in his bosom and inquired after his health. In the course of one month the Ruler of Han went himself to ask Chang Ch`ien: "If the Premier passes away, who else should take his place?" In reply Chang Ch`ien said: "Wu-chêng upholds the law and reveres the superior. However, he is not as good as Prince Shih-wo in winning the hearts of the people." Chang Ch`ien died. The Ruler, accordingly, appointed Wu-chêng Prime Minister.
Yo Yang commanded the Wey forces in attacking
Central Hills, when his son was in that country. The Ruler of Central Hills
steamed his son and sent him the soup. Yo Yang, then seated beneath the tent,
supped the soup and drank up the whole plateful. Marquis Wên said to Tu
Shih-chan: "Yo Yang on account of His Highness ate the flesh of his son." In
response to this Tu Shih-chan said: "Even his own son he ate. Who else then
would he not eat?" When Yo Yang came back from the campaign in
Mêng Sun went out hunting and got a fawn. He then ordered Ch`in Hsi-pa to bring it home. On the way the mother deer followed along and kept crying. Unable to bear that, Ch`in Hsi-pa gave the fawn back to its mother, when Mêng Sun arrived and asked for the fawn. In reply Hsi-pa said: "Unable to bear the mother's crying, I gave it back to her." Enraged thereby, Mêng Sun dismissed him. In the course of three months, he recalled him and appointed him tutor of his son. Out of wonder his coachman asked, "Why did Your Excellency blame him before and has now called him back to be tutor of the young master?" "If he could not bear the ruin of a fawn," replied Mêng Sun, "how would he bear the ruin of my son?"
Hence the saying: "Skilful deception is not as good as unskilful sincerity." For instance, Yo Yang despite his merit incurred suspicion while Ch`in Hsi-pa despite his demerit increased his credit.
Tsêng Ts`ung Tzŭ was good in judging swords.
The Ruler of Wei had ill will towards the King of Wu. Therefore Tsêng Ts`ung
Tzŭ said to him: "The King of Wu is fond of swords. Thy servant is good
in judging swords. May thy servant go to judge swords for the King of Wu, and,
when drawing out a sword to show him, thrust him with it and thereby avenge
Your Highness?" In reply the Ruler of Wei said: "Your action
When Chow made chop-sticks of ivory, the Viscount
of Chi was frightened. He thought: "Ivory chop-sticks would not be put on
earthen-wares but on cups made of jade or of rhinoceros horns. Further, jade
cups and ivory chop-sticks would not go with the soup made of beans and coarse
greens, but with the meat of long-haired buffaloes and unborn leopards. Again,
eaters of the meat of
Duke Tan of Chou, having vanquished Yin, was about to attack Shang-kai, when Duke Chia of Hsin said to him: "Big states are hard to attack, small ones are easy to subjugate. The best is to subjugate small states and thereby intimidate big ones." Accordingly, they fell upon the Nine Barbarians with the result that Shang-kai submitted also.
Chow indulged in over-night drinking and through
the pleasure
Imperial
Library has #### in place of ####.
Once upon a time, a man of Lu, who was a good maker of sandals, and whose wife was a good weaver of gloss-silk, was about to migrate to Yüeh. Thereupon someone said, "You are bound to become poor there!" "Why?" asked the man. "Because sandals are for the feet to wear, but the Yüehs go bare-footed. Gloss-silk is for making crowns, but the Yüehs dishevel their hair. With your skill unemployed in that country, how can you help becoming poor?"
Ch`ên Hsü
Chi Sun of Lu had recently murdered the Ruler,
while Wu Ch`i was still serving him. Thereupon someone said to Wu Ch`i:
"Indeed, a dead person who has just died
Once, when Hsi Ssŭ-mi visited Viscount T`ien
Ch`êng, Viscount T`ien Ch`êng took him to a tower to look out over the four
directions. In three directions they could admire far-reaching views, but when
they looked out over the south, they saw the trees of Hsi Tzŭ's residence
Once Yang Tzŭ passed through Sung and stayed
Once a man of Wei on giving a daughter in marriage
taught her, saying: "Be sure to accumulate your own savings because it is usual
for a married woman to be divorced and it is unusually lucky if she can succeed
in making a new home." The daughter, accordingly, accumulated her own savings
in secret. In consequence, her mother-in-law, regarding her as extraordinarily
Lu Tan thrice persuaded the Ruler of Central Hills,
but his advice was never taken. So he spent fifty taels to gain the good-will
of the attendants. Then he went to have another audience, when the Ruler,
before speaking one word to him, invited him to a banquet. When Lu Tan went
out, he did not return to his lodging place but left Central Hills at once. Out
of wonder his coachman asked him: "The Ruler of Central Hills only began to
show Your Excellency courtesies during the last interview, but
Earl T`ien Ting loved warriors and scholars and
thereby kept his Ruler in safety; the Duke of White loved warriors and scholars
and thereby threw Ching into confusion. Their loving warriors and scholars was
the same, but the motives behind the action were different. Again, Kung-sun Chi
Pai-lo
Viscount Wên, a general of the Wei State, once
called on Tsêng Tsŭ . Tsêng Tzŭ did not stand up but asked him to
take a seat while he set himself on a seat of honour.
A kind of bird called "little cuckoo" has a heavy
head and a curved tail. On drinking water from the river, it is bound to be
overturned. Therefore, another bird has to hold its feather upward and let it
drink. Similarly, men who fall short of drinking ought to find support for
their own feather.
Eels are like snakes, silkworms like caterpillars. Men are frightened at the sight of snakes and shocked at the sight of caterpillars. However, fishermen would hold eels in hand and women would pick up silkworms. Thus, where there is profit, there everyone turns as brave as Mêng Pên and Chuan Chu.
Pai-lo taught men whom he disliked how to select
swift race-horses and taught men whom he liked how to select inferior horses,
because swift race-horses being few and far between would yield slow profits
while inferior horses being sold every day would bring about quick profits.
That swift Book of Chou.
Huan
Marquis Ch`ung and Wu-lai knew that they would not be chastised by Chow but never foresaw that King Wu would destroy them. Pi-kan and Tzŭ-hsü knew that their masters would go to ruin but never knew the impending death of themselves. Hence the saying: "Marquis Ch`ung and Wu-lai knew the mind of their master but not the course of events while Pi-kan and Tzŭ-hsü knew the course of events but not the minds of their masters. The saintly man knowing both is always secure."
The Prime Minister of Sung was powerful and in
charge of all important decisions. When Chi Tzŭ was about to visit the
Ruler of Sung, Liang Tzŭ heard about it and said to him: "During the
interview, are you sure the Prime Minister will be present? Otherwise, you
might not be able to evade disasters." Chi Tzŭ, accordingly, persuaded
the Ruler of the need of taking care of his health
Yang Chu's younger brother, Yang Pu, once wore
white clothes and went out. As it started raining, he took off
Hui Tzŭ said: "If Hou Yi put the thimble
Duke Huan of Ch`i once asked Kuan Chung if there
was any limit of wealth. In reply Kuan Chung said: "Where there is no more
water, there is the limit of water. Where there is content with wealth, there
lies the limit of wealth. If one cannot stop with his content, it is because he
forgets
In Sung there was a rich merchant named Chien Chih
Tzŭ. Once, when he was competing with other people for buying an uncut
jade quoted at one hundred taels of gold, he pretended to drop it and thereby
break it by mistake. As a result, he had to pay one hundred taels of gold for
the damage. Then he repaired the breakage and sold it for twenty thousand
taels.
yi was equivalent to twenty taels.
Once there was a man who owing to his skilfulness in driving wanted to see the King of Ching. All coachmen became jealous of him. Therefore, he said, "Thy servant when driving can catch deer." So he was granted an audience. When the King himself drove, he could not catch any deer. Then the man drove and caught them. The King praised his driving, when he told the King about the coachmen's jealousy of him.
When Ching ordered Kung-sun Ch`ao
Yao transferred the rule over All-under-Heaven to Hsü Yu. But Hsü Yu ran away. When he stayed in a farmer's house, the farmer put his fur hat out of the guest's sight. Indeed, the farmer put his hat out of the sight of Hsü Yu who had even declined the rule over All-under-Heaven because he never knew of Hsü Yu.
Once three lice were biting a pig and disputing with one another. Another louse, passing by them, asked, "What are you disputing about?" "We are fighting for fat places," replied the three lice. "If you fellows do not worry about the arrival of the mid-winter festival and the burning of the miscanthus, what else should you worry about?" So saying, the last louse joined the three in biting the body of the pig and ate as much as they wanted. In the meantime, the pig became very thin, wherefore people did not kill it at the time of the festival.
There is a kind of worm called "tapeworm", which has two mouths. Once they quarrelled for food and bit each other, till they killed each other. All ministers who quarrel about public affairs and thereby ruin the state, are all like tapeworms.
If buildings are painted white and furniture cleansed with water, then there is cleanliness. The same is true of human conduct and personality. If there is left no room for further painting and cleansing, then faults must be few.
When Prince Chiu was about to cause a rebellion, Duke Huan of Ch`i sent spies to watch him. They came back with the report that Prince Chiu, inasmuch as he never rejoiced when laughing and never saw when looking at a thing, would certainly cause a rebellion. Hearing this, Duke Huan made the Lus kill him.
Kung-sun Hung bobbed his hair and became a cavalier
of the King of Yüeh. To sever his relationship with him, Kung-sun Hsi sent
someone to tell him, "I and you will no longer be brothers." In reply Kung-sun
Hung said: "I have my hair cut off. You might have your neck cut off while
serving in the army under somebody else. What
A man who lived next-door to a rascal thought of
selling off his estate and thereby keeping away from him. Thereupon someone
said to him, "His string of wickedness will soon be full. Better wait for a
while." "I am afraid he is going to do something against me for filling his
measure of
Confucius once asked his disciples, "Who can tell
me the way Tzŭ-hsi made his name?" "Tz`ŭ
Viscount Wên of Chung-hang of Chin, while living in
exile, once passed through a county town, when his followers said: "The squire
of this place is an old acquaintance of Your Excellency. Why does Your
Excellency not stay in his house and wait for the carriage coming from behind?"
In reply Viscount Wên said: "I used to love music, when this man presented me
with an automatic harp. When I liked girdle ornaments, he presented me with a
jade bracelet.
Chou Ts`ao once said to Kung T`a, "Will you tell
the King of Ch`i that if His Majesty helps me attain to high office in Wey with
Ch`i's influence I will in return make Wey serve Ch`i?" "No," replied Kung T`a.
"Your request will show him your being powerless in Wey. I am sure the King of
Ch`i would not help any powerless man in Wey and thereby incur hatred from the
powerful men in the country. Therefore, you had better say, `Whatever His
Majesty wants, thy servant will make Wey do accordingly.' Then the King of Ch`i
would think you are powerful in Wey and support you. In this way, after you
become influential in Ch`i, you will gain influence in Wey with Ch`i's
support."
Pai Kuei once said to the Premier of Sung: "As soon as your master grows up, he will administer the state affairs himself, and you will have nothing to do. Now your master is young and fond of making a name. Better make the Ching State congratulate him on his filial piety. Then your master never will deprive you of your post and will pay high respects to you and you will always hold high office in Sung."
Kuan Chung and Pao Shu said to each other: "The
Ruler who is extremely outrageous, is bound to lose the
vide supra, pp. 214-15).
The King of Ching attacked Wu. Wu sent Chü Wei and
Chüeh Yung to entertain Ching's troops with presents. The Commander of the
Ching Army said, "Arrest them and kill them for painting the festive drum with
their blood." Then he asked, "Did you divine your fortunes before you started
coming here?" "Yes, we did." "Good luck?" "Of course, good luck." "Now, we are
going to kill you and paint our festive drum with your blood. Why?" "That is
the reason why the omen is good," replied the two men. "Wu sent us here to test
Your Excellency.
Earl Chih was about to attack the Ch`ou-yu State,
and found the path too hazardous to go through. Thereupon he cast large bells
and offered to present them to the Ruler of Ch`ou-yu. The Ruler of Ch`ou-yu,
greatly pleased thereby, thought of clearing up the path for accepting the
bells. "No," said Ch`ih-chang Wan-chi, "he is acting in the way a small state
pays respects to a big power. Now that a big state is sending us such a
present, soldiers will certainly follow it. Do not accept it." To this counsel
the Ruler of
Yüeh having already vanquished Wu asked for
Ching attacked Ch`ên. But Wu went to rescue it.
There was only thirty li between the opposing armies. After having been rainy
for ten days, the weather began to clear
When Han and Chao were menacing each other, the
Viscount of Han asked for reinforcements from Wey, saying, "We hope you will
lend us troops to attack Chao." In reply Marquis Wên of Wey said, "Wey and Chao
are
Ch`i attacked Lu and demanded the tripod made in Ch`an. Lu sent them a forged one. "It's a forged one," said the Ch`is. "It's a real one," said the Lus. "Then bring Yo-chêng Tzŭ-ch`un here to look at it," said the Ch`is. "We will listen to what he is going to say." Thereupon the Ruler of Lu asked Yo-chêng Tzŭ-ch`un to take his side. "Why did you not send them the real one?" asked Yo-chêng Tzŭ-ch`un. "Because I love it," replied the Ruler. "I love my own reputation, too," replied Yo-chêng.
When Han Chiu proclaimed himself Ruler and
everything was not as yet stabilized, his younger brother was in Chou. The
Court of Chou wanted to support him but feared the Hans might not accept him.
When the Lord of Ch`ing-kuo
The younger brother of the King of Ching was in
Ch`in. When Ch`in refused to send him home, a certain lieutenant
Imperial
Library has #### in place of ####.
Ho-lü attacked Ying and in the fighting won three
battles. Then he asked Tzŭ-hsü, "May we turn back now?" In reply
Tzŭ-hsü said: "Who wants to drown anybody and stops after giving him one
drink, cannot drown him to
A man of Chêng
vide supra, p.
110).
Men of antiquity, because their eyes stopped short
of
There are in All-under-Heaven three truths: First, that even wise men find unattainable tasks; second, that even strong men find immovable objects; and third, that even brave men find invincible opponents.
For instance, though you have the wisdom of Yao but
have no support of the masses of the people, you cannot accomplish any great
achievement; though you have the physical force of Wu Huo but have no help from
other people, you cannot raise yourself; and though you have the strength of
Mêng Pên and Hsia Yü and uphold neither law nor tact, you cannot triumph for
ever.
Times
Now that you understand the inability of Yao to accomplish the rule by himself, the inability of Wu Huo to raise his own body by himself, and the inability of Mêng Pên and Hsia Yü to triumph by themselves, if you uphold law and tact, then the course of observing deeds will be completed.
The means of safety have seven varieties; the ways
to danger, six.
Of the means of safety:—
The first is said to be "reward and punishment in accordance with right and wrong".
The second is said to be "fortune and misfortune in accordance with good and evil".
The third is said to be "life and death in accordance with laws and institutions".
The fourth is said to be "discrimination between the worthy and unworthy but not between the loved and the hated".
The fifth is said to be "discrimination between the stupid and the wise but not between the blamed and the praised".
The sixth is to "have feet and inches but let nobody guess the ruler's mind".
The seventh is to "have good faith but no falsehood".
Of the ways to danger:—
The first is to "make cuts within the string".
The second is to "make breaks beyond the string".
The third is to "profit by people's danger".
The fourth is to "rejoice in people's disaster".
The fifth is to "endanger people's safety".
The sixth is "not to keep intimate with the loved nor to keep the hated at a distance".
In cases like the above-mentioned, people will lose the reason to rejoice in life and forget the reason to take death seriously. If people do not rejoice in life, the lord of men will not be held in high esteem; if people do not take death seriously, orders will not take effect.
Let All-under-Heaven devote their wisdom and talent
to the refinement of manners and looks and exert their strength to the
observance of yard and weight,
They say that, of old, Pien Ch`iao, when treating
serious
If the lord of men does not cultivate himself with Yao as example but requests every minister to imitate Tzŭ-hsü, he is then doing the same as expecting the Yins to be as loyal as Pi Kan. If everybody could be as loyal as Pi Kan, the ruler would neither lose the throne nor ruin himself. As the ruler does not weigh the ministers' powers despite the existence of rapacious ministers like T`ien Ch`êng but expects everybody to be as loyal as Pi Kan, the state can never have a moment of safety.
If the example of Yao and Shun is set aside and
that of Chieh and Chow is followed instead, then the people can neither rejoice
in their own merits nor worry over their own defects. If they lose their
merits, the country will accomplish nothing; if they stick to the defects, they
will not rejoice in life. If the authorities having accomplished nothing
Safety and danger rest with right and wrong but not
with strength and weakness. Existence and extinction depend upon substantiality
and superficiality, but not on big and small numbers. For example, Ch`i was a
state of ten thousand chariots, but her name and her reality were not mutually
equivalent. The ruler had superficial powers inside the state and paved no gap
between name and reality. Therefore, ministers could deprive the sovereign of
the throne. Again, Chieh
The intelligent sovereign consolidates internal
forces and therefore encounters no external failure. Who fails within his
reach, is bound to fail at a distance. For instance, the Chous on supplanting
the Yins learned by the latter's failures in the court. Should the Yins have
made no mistake in their court, even for an autumn down
The Tao of the intelligent sovereign is true to the law, and his law is true to the mind. Therefore, when standing close by it, he acts on the law; when going away from it, he thinks of it in the mind. Thus, Yao made no covenant as binding as glue and varnish with his age, but his Tao prevailed. Shun left no territory sufficient to set a gimlet on with subsequent ages, but his Teh is bearing fruit. Who can trace his Tao to remote antiquity and leave his Teh to the myriad subsequent ages, is called "an enlightened sovereign".
When a sage-king
makes laws, he makes rewards sufficient to encourage the good, his authority
sufficient to subjugate the violent, and his preparation sufficient to
accomplish
In by-gone days, the good maintainers of the state forbade what they considered light with what they considered heavy, and stopped what they considered easy with what they considered hard. Therefore, both gentlemen and rustics were equally upright. Robber Chê and Tsêng Ts`an and Shih Ch`iu were equally honest. How do I know this? Indeed, the greedy robber does not go to the ravine to snatch gold. For, if he goes to the ravine to snatch gold, he will not be safe. Similarly, Pên and Yü, without estimating their opponents' strength, would have gained no fame for bravery; Robber Chê, without calculating the possibilities of success, would have gained no booty.
When the intelligent sovereign enacts prohibitions,
even Pên and Yü are restrained by what they cannot vanquish and Robber Chê is
afflicted with what he cannot take. Therefore, if the ruler can forbid with
what Pên and Yü
Once the lord of men leaves the law and loses the hearts of the people, he will fear lest Po-i should take anything away, and will not escape such calamities as are caused by T`ien Ch`êng and Robber Chê. Why? Because the present world has not a single man as upright as Po-i but the age is full of culprits. That is the reason why laws, weights, and measures are made. If weights and measures are of faith, Po-i loses no reason to be right and Robber Chê cannot do wrong. If laws are distinct and clear, the worthy cannot over-run the unworthy, the strong cannot outrage the weak, and the many cannot violate the few. If the ruler commits All-under-Heaven to the care of the Law of Yao, honest men never miss their due posts and wicked men never seek any godsend. If the arrow of Hou Yi is entrusted with a thousand taels of gold, Po-i cannot lose and Robber Chê dare not take. As Yao was too clever to miss the culprits, All-under-Heaven had no wickedness. As Yi was too skilful to miss the mark, the thousand taels of gold would not be lost. Thus, wicked men could not live long, and Robber Chê would stop.
Should such be the case, among the pictures there
would be inserted no worthy like Tsai Yü and enumerated no rapacious ministers
like the Six Nobles; among the books there would be recorded no personage like
Tzŭ-hsü and described no tyrant like Fu-ch`a; the tactics of Sun Wu and
Wu Ch`i would be abandoned; and Robber Chê's malice would give way. Then the
lord of men might enjoy sound sleep inside the jade palace with no trouble of
glaring his eyes and grinding his teeth with anger and turning his ear with
anxiety; while the ministers might drop their clothes and fold their hands in
an iron-walled city with no
To subdue the tiger not by means of the cage, to
suppress the culprit not by means of the law, or to impede the liar not by
means of the tally, would be a worry to Pên and Yü and a difficulty to Yao and
Shun. Therefore, to construct a cage is not to provide against rats but to
enable the weak and timid to subdue the tiger; to establish laws is not to
provide against Tsêng Ts`an and Shih Ch`iu but to enable the average sovereign
to prohibit Robber Chê; and to make tallies is not to guard against Wei Shêng
but to make the masses never deceive one another. Thus, the right way is not to
rely on Pi Kan's martyrdom in the cause of fidelity nor to count on the
rapacious minister's committing no deception, but to rely on the ability of the
timid to subdue the tiger and appropriate the facilities of the average
sovereign to maintain the state. In the present age, who schemes loyally for
the sovereign and accumulates virtue for
They say the ancients who were skilful in personnel
administration always conformed to the way of heaven, accorded with the nature
of man, and clarified the principles of reward and punishment. As they
conformed to the way of heaven, they expended few efforts, but harvested
fruitful results. As they accorded with the nature of man, penal acts were
simplified, but orders took effect. As they clarified the principles of reward
and punishment, Po-i and Robber Chê were never mixed up. That being so, white
and black were clearly distinguished from each other.
Ministers of an orderly state render meritorious
service to the country so as to fulfil their official duties, manifest their
talents in office so as to obtain promotions, and devote their strength to the
observance of yard and weight so as to manage affairs. As all officials have
due abilities, are competent for their duties, and do not covet any additional
post
b.c. at Ch`ang-p`ing.
The intelligent ruler allows no offices to meddle
with
Casting law and tact aside and trusting to personal judgments, even Yao could not rectify a state. Discarding compasses and squares and trusting to optional measures, even Hsi Chung could not make a single wheel. Giving rulers up and thereby attempting to make shortness and length even, even Wang Erh could not point out the middle. Supposing an average sovereign abode by law and tact and an unskilful carpenter used compasses, squares, and rulers, certainly there would be no mistake in a myriad cases. Who rules men, if he casts aside what the wise and the skilful fall short of and maintains what the average and the unskilful never fail in, can then exert the forces of the people to the utmost and accomplish his achievement and reputation.
The intelligent sovereign offers rewards that may
be earned and establishes punishments that should be avoided. Accordingly,
worthies are encouraged by rewards and never meet Tzŭ-hsü's disaster;
unworthy people commit few crimes and never see the humpback being cut open;
blind people walk on the plain and never come across any deep ravine; stupid
people keep silent and never fall into
The bulletins of the intelligent sovereign being so
easy to see, his promises keep. His teachings being so easy to understand, his
words function. His laws being so easy to observe, his orders take effect. When
these three things are well founded and the superiors have no self-seeking
mind, the inferiors will obey the law and maintain order; will look at the
bulletin and move; will follow the inked string and break; and will follow the
flat pins
They say, "To manage an affair and have no worry,
even Yao would be unable." Yet the world is always full of affairs. The ruler
of men, unless generous in conferring titles and bounties and easy in rewarding
people of merit with riches and honours, is not worth helping in saving
Generally speaking, the lord of men rejoices in making the people exert their strength for public causes and suffers by the usurpation of his authority by self-seeking ministers. The minister feels content when receiving appointment to office and overburdened when taking charge of two responsibilities at one time. The intelligent sovereign, therefore, abolishes what the ministers suffer and establishes what the lord of men rejoices in. Such an advantage to both superior and inferior is surpassed by nothing else. Contrary to this, if the ruler fails to observe closely the interiors of private residences, handles important affairs with slight concerns of mind, inflicts severe censure for minor offences, resents small faults for a long time, habitually teases people for amusement's sake and frequently requites trouble-makers with favours, it is the same as to cut off the arm and replace it with a jewel one. Hence the world encounters calamities of dethronement.
If the lord of men institutes difficult
requirements and convicts anybody whosoever falls short of the mark, then
Supposing the King of Yen hated his people at home
but loved the Lus abroad, then Yen would not serve him nor would Lu obey him.
The Yens,
Supposing you discarded the mark and target and
shot blindly, then though you hit it, you would not thereby be skilful.
Similarly, supposing you cast laws and institutions aside and got angry
blindly, then, though you slaughter many, the culprits would not be afraid of
you. If the crime is committed by "A" but the consequent disaster befalls "B",
Wherever the shot arrow hits the mark and reward and punishment correspond with the tallies of merits and demerits, there Yao can come to life again and Yi can reappear. In such an orderly country, superiors will encounter no catastrophe as met by the Yins and the Hsias; inferiors will suffer no disaster as met by Pi-kan; the ruler can sleep without worries; ministers can rejoice in their daily work; Tao will spread all over heaven and earth; and Teh will last throughout a myriad generations.
Indeed, if the lord of men, instead of paving
cracks and gaps, works hard on painting the surface with red and white clay, be
sure swift rain and sudden gale will tumble the house down. Likewise, if he
does not escape the impending disaster as near as the eyebrows and eyelashes
but yearns after the manner of the death of Pên and Yü; if he takes no heed of
the imminent trouble within the enclosure but solidifies the iron castles in
remote frontiers; and if he does not adopt the schemes of the worthies near by
him but cultivates friendships with the states of ten thousand chariots a
thousand li away; then once the
The factors of the intelligent ruler's success in
accomplishing achievement and establishing reputation are four: The first is
said to be "the time of heaven"; the second, "the hearts of the people"; the
third, "technical ability"; and the fourth, "influential status."
Without the time of heaven, even ten Yaos cannot in winter grow a single ear of grain. Acting contrary to the hearts of the people, even Pên and Yü cannot make them exert their forces to the utmost. Therefore, when grains gain the favour of the time of heaven, they grow of themselves with no need of special care; when the ruler wins the hearts of the people, he elevates himself without being raised. When one relies on his technical ability, he hastens by himself without being hurried. When one occupies an influential status, his name is made without being commended.
Like water flowing and like the ship floating, the ruler follows the course of nature and enacts boundless decrees. Hence he is called "an enlightened sovereign".
Indeed, the possessor of talent who has no
position, even though he is worthy, cannot control the unworthy. For
illustration, when a foot of timber is placed on the top of a high mountain, it
overlooks the ravine a thousand fathoms below. Not that the timber is long, but
that its position is high. Chieh, while the Son of Heaven, could rule over
All-under-Heaven. Not that he was worthy but that his
The lord of men, because supported by
All-under-Heaven with united forces, is safe; because upheld by the masses of
the people with united hearts, he is glorious. The minister, because he
maintains his merit and exerts his ability, is loyal. If a glorious sovereign
The anxiety of the lord of men comes from the
absence of minister's responses to his call. Hence the saying: "Nobody can clap
with one hand, however fast he moves it." The anxiety of the minister lies in
the inability to secure a full-time routine of work. Hence the saying: "The
right hand drawing a circle and the left hand drawing a square at the same time
cannot both succeed." Hence the saying again: "In the state at the height of
order the ruler is like the drumstick and the minister like the drum;
Therefore, the ancients who could secure both
achievement and reputation, were all assisted by the multitudes with forces,
the near supporting them in earnest,
The
ancients who completed the principal features of legalism, looked upon heaven
and earth, surveyed rivers and oceans, and followed mountains and ravines;
wherefore they ruled as the sun and the moon shine, worked as the four seasons
rotate, and benefited the world in the way clouds spread and winds move.
They never burdened their mind with avarice
Imperial Library has #### in place of ####.
Therefore, in the age at the height of safety law
is like the morning dew, pure and simple but not yet dispersed. There is no
resentment in the mind nor is there any
Supposing Carpenter Stone kept the longevity of one
thousand years, had his scythes, watched his compasses and squares, and
stretched his inked string, for the purpose of rectifying Mountain T`ai
vide
supra, p. 41, n. 2).
If in accordance with Tao, the law is successfully enforced, the superior man will rejoice and the great culprit will give way. Placid, serene, and leisurely, the enlightened ruler should in accordance with the decree of heaven maintain the principal features of legalism. Therefore, he makes the people commit no crime of going astray from law and the fish suffer no disaster by losing water. Consequently, nothing in All-under-Heaven will be unattainable.
If the superior is not as great as heaven, he never will be able to protect all inferiors; if his mind is not as firm as earth, he never will be able to support all objects. Mountain T`ai, seeing no difference between desirable and undesirable clouds, can maintain its height; rivers and oceans, making no discrimination against small tributaries, can accomplish their abundance. Likewise, great men, patterning after the features of heaven and earth, find the myriad things well provided, and, applying their mind to the observation of mountains and oceans, find the country rich. The superior shows no harm from anger to anybody, the inferior throws no calamity of hidden resentment at anybody. Thus, high and low both live on friendly terms and take Tao as the standard of value. Consequently, permanent advantages are piled up and great merits accomplished. So is a name made in a lifetime. So is the benefaction left to posterity. Such is the height of order.
There are seven
tacts which the sovereign ought to employ, and six minutiæ which he ought to
penetrate.
Of the seven tacts, the first is said to be
"comparing and inspecting all available different theories"; the second,
"making punishment definite and authority clear"; the third, "bestowing rewards
faithfully and everybody exert his ability"; the fourth, "listening to all
sides of every story
These seven are what the sovereign ought to employ.
If the sovereign does not compare what he sees
and hears, he will never get at the real. If his hearing has any particular
passage to come through at all, he will be deluded
If the ruler is too compassionate, the law will
never prevail. If the authority is too weak, the inferior will offend the
superior. For this reason, if penalties are not definite, prohibitions and
decrees will take no effect. The saying is based on Tung Tzŭ's tour to
the Stony Country and
If reward and honour are insufficient and
faithless, the inferior would not obey. If reward and honour are great and of
faith, the inferior will make light of death. The saying is based on Viscount
Wên's saying, "The inferior turn to great reward and high honour just like the
wild deer going to luxuriant grass." For further illustration, the King of Yüeh
set fire to the palace building, Wu Ch`i leaned the shaft of a carriage outside
the city-gate, Li K`uei judged lawsuits on the basis of the litigants' shooting
abilities, and the people of Ch`ung-mên in Sung would on account of reward and
honour reduce themselves to death. Kou-chien, knowing the utility of reward and
honour, saluted an angry frog; Marquis Chao, knowing the utility of reward and
honour, stored up old trousers. Big reward, indeed, makes everybody as brave as
Mêng Pên and Chuan Chu. Women daring to pick up silkworms and fishermen daring
to grasp eels, both testify to the utility of reward and honour.
If the ruler listens straight to one project
alone, he cannot distinguish between the stupid and the intelligent. If he
holds every projector responsible, ministers cannot confound their abilities.
The saying is based on the demand of the Chêng territory by Wey and on the
playing of the Yü instrument. Its opposite is instanced by Shên Tzŭ's
vide infra, p. 305).
If someone has frequent audience with his superior and is accorded a long reception but not appointed to any office, then villainous men will disperse in his presence like deer in all directions. If the superior sends men out to find anything other than what is in question, the inferior would not dare to sell private favours. Therefore, P`ang Ching recalled the sheriff, Tai Huan ordered men to find out if there was any covered wagon, the Sovereign of Chou purposely lost jade bodkins, and the Premier of Shang spoke about ox dung.
If you make inquiries by manipulating different
Invert words and reverse affairs, and thereby
So much above for the canons.
At the time of Duke Ling of Wei, Mi
Tzŭ-hsia was in favour with him, and administered all public affairs in
the Wei State. One day, the clown,
Once Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius, saying, "In spite of the popular proverb, `Getting bewildered because of no advisory council,' why is it that in administering the state affairs the more I consult with the body of officials the more disorderly the state becomes?" In reply Confucius said: "When the enlightened sovereign asks ministers about state affairs, one minister might know while another might not know. In that case, the enlightened sovereign can preside over a conference while the ministers earnestly discuss the affairs before him. Now that every official utters every word in accord with the opinion of Chi Sun and the whole State of Lu falls under the sway of one and the same bias, even though Your Highness consults with everybody within the state boundaries, the state cannot help becoming disorderly."
According to a different source
Yen
Tzŭ's Spring and Autumn Annals.Yen Tzŭ's Spring and Autumn Annals has #### for
####.
Once somebody of Ch`i said to the King of Ch`i: "The Earl of the River is a great god. Why may Your Majesty not try to meet with him? May thy servant enable Your Majesty to meet with him!" Thereupon he built an altar on the middle of the flood and stood with the King upon it. In the meantime, there was a big fish making motions. "That is the Earl of the River!" said the man.
Chang Yi wanted to attack Ch`i and Ching with the
allied forces of Ch`in, Han, and Wey, while Hui Shih wanted to halt the war by
befriending Ch`i and Ching. The two opened a debate. The officials and the
chamberlains all spoke in favour of Chang Tzŭ, pointing out the advantage
of attacking Ch`i and Ching, while nobody spoke in favour
When Shu Sun was Premier of Lu, he was
influential and in charge of all state affairs. His favourite, named Shu Niu,
also abused his orders. Shu Sun had a son named Jên. Jealous of Jên, Shu Niu
wanted to kill him. Accordingly, he went with Jên to visit the inner court of
the Ruler of Lu. The Ruler of Lu bestowed upon him a jade ring. Jên, making a
deep bow, accepted it. But he dared not hang it on his girdle and so told Shu
Niu to secure Shu Sun's permission beforehand. Deceiving him, Shu Sun said:
Jên's elder brother was named Ping. Shu Niu was
also jealous of him and wanted to kill him. So he cast a bell for Ping. When
the bell was ready, Ping dared not toll it and so told Shu Niu to secure Shu
Sun's permission
When Chiang Yi was sent by the King of Wey as envoy to Ching, he said to the King of Ching: "After entering the boundaries of Your Majesty, thy servant heard that, according to the customary law of your honourable kingdom, a gentleman should neither obscure anybody else's virtue nor expose anybody else's vice. Do you really have such a customary law?" "Certainly, we do!" replied the King. "If so, did the Duke of White's rebellion involve no danger at all? If you uphold such a customary law, then vicious ministers will be pardoned for committing capital crimes."
Duke
Indeed, if arrows come from a certain direction, then pile iron bars in that direction to guard against them. If arrows come from unknown directions, then make an iron-walled room to guard against all of them. If one guards against them this way, his body will receive no injury. Therefore, in the way one guards against all arrows and receives no injury, the ruler should stand in opposition to all ministers and thereby encounter no culprit.
When P`ang Kung together with the Crown Prince
was going to Han-tan as hostage, he said to the King of Wey: "Now, if someone
says there in the market-place is a tiger, will Your Majesty believe it?" "No,
I will not believe it," replied the King. "Then, if two men say there in the
Literary Works on Facts and Varieties has #### in place
of ####.
Tung An
Tzŭ-ch`an, Premier of Chêng, when ill and
about to die, said to Yu Chi: "After my death you will certainly be appointed
Premier of Chêng. Then be sure to handle the people with severity. Indeed, fire
appears severe, wherefore men rarely get burned; water appears tender,
wherefore men often get drowned. You must not forget to make your penalties
severe and do not immerse yourself in tenderness." After Tzŭ-ch`an's
Duke Ai of Lu once asked Chung-ni: "There is the
record in the Spring and Autumn Annals that in winter
during the month of January
The Law of Yin would punish anybody throwing
ashes into the streets. This Tzŭ-kung regarded as too severe and so asked
Chung-ni about it. "They knew the right way of government," replied Chung-ni.
"Indeed, ashes thrown into the streets would blow into the eyes of the
passers-by and obscure their sight. And if anybody obscures the sight of
others, he would irritate them. When irritated, they start quarrelling. On
quarrelling, each side would mobilize their three clans
According to a different source: According to the Law of Yin, whoever threw ashes on the public road should have his hands cut off. Tzŭ-kung said: "The crime of ash-throwing is light but the punishment of hand-cutting is heavy. Why were the ancients so cruel?" In reply Confucius said: "Not to throw ashes is easy but to have hands cut off is disliked. The ancients considered it easy to enforce the easy and prevent the disliked. Therefore they enacted the law."
Yo Ch`ih, Premier of Central Hills, when
appointed envoy to Chao, took one hundred chariots along and selected the wise
and able men among his guests to be his highway guards. On the way they became
disorderly. "Gentlemen," said Yo Ch`ih, "I regarded you as wise and appointed
you highway guards. Now that you are creating a commotion on the way, what is
the reason?" The guests, accordingly, resigned from their posts and went away,
saying: "Your Excellency does not know the right way of government. Indeed, it
needs prestige to keep people
The Law of Kung-sun Yang took minor offences seriously. Major offences are hard for men to commit while small faults are easy for men to remove. To make men get rid of easy faults and not ignore difficult offences is the right way of government. Indeed, when small faults never appear, big offences will not come into existence. For this reason, men committed no crime and disorder did not appear.
According to a different source: Kung-sun Yang
said, "In applying penalties, take light ones seriously because if light
penalties are not applied, heavy ones will not come at all. This is said to be
getting rid of penalties by means of penalties."
In the southern part of Ching the bottom of the
Clear Water produced gold-dust. Many men in secret dug out gold-dust. In
accordance with the prohibition law, a number of gold-diggers were caught and
stoned to death in the market-place. Then the authorities built walls to bar
the water from the people. Still people never stopped stealing gold-dust.
Indeed, no chastisement is severer than stoning to death in the market-place.
That people never stopped stealing gold-dust was because the culprits were not
always caught. In this connection, supposing someone said, "I will give you the
reign over All-under-Heaven and put you to death," then even a mediocre man
would not accept the offer. Indeed, the reign over All-under-Heaven is a great
advantage, but he would not accept it as he knew he
The Lus once set fire to the Product Swamp. As the northern winds appeared, the fire spread southward. Fearing lest the state capital might be burned, Duke Ai trembled and personally directed the masses in suppressing the fire. Meanwhile, he found nobody around, all having gone to hunt animals and leaving the fire unsuppressed. Thereupon he summoned Chung-ni and asked him about it. "Indeed, hunting animals," said Chung-ni, "is a pleasure and incurs no punishment. But putting out the fire is a hardship and promises no reward. That is the reason why the fire is not put out." "Right," remarked Duke Ai. "It is untimely, however, to offer rewards just in time of emergency like this," added Chung-ni. "If Your Highness has to reward all the participants in the suppression of the fire, then even the whole state wealth is not enough for rewarding them. Suppose we enforce the policy of punishment for the time being." "Good," said Duke Ai. Thereupon Chung-ni issued the order that absence in the suppression of the fire should be sentenced to the same punishment as surrender to or escape from enemies and hunting animals should be sentenced to the same punishment as trespass upon the inner court of the palace. In consequence, the fire was put out before the order spread all over.
Ch`êng Huan
King Hui of Wey said to Pu P`i, "When you hear
His Majesty's voice, how does it sound to you?" "Thy servant hears the
compassion and beneficence of Your Majesty," was the reply. "Then to what
extent will my achievement progress?" asked the King in great delight. "To the
extent of ruin," was the reply. "To be compassionate and beneficent is to
practise good deeds. Why should such a practice lead to ruin?" wondered the
King. In reply Pu P`i said: "To be sure, compassion means leniency;
The people of the Ch`i State would hold expensive funeral rites, till cloth and silk fabrics were exhausted by clothes and covers, and wood and lumber by inner and outer coffin-walls. Worried over this, Duke Huan said to Kuan Chung: "If the people exhaust cloth this way, nothing will be left for national wealth. If they exhaust wood this way, nothing will be left for military defence. And yet the people will hold expensive funeral rites and never stop How can prohibition be effected?" In reply Kuan Chung said, "If people do anything at all, it is done for profit if not for repute." Thereupon he issued the order that if the thickness of both inner and outer coffin-walls were to go beyond legal limits, the corpse should be cut into pieces and the mourning relatives should be held guilty. Indeed, to cut the corpse into pieces would create no repute; to hold guilty the mourning relatives would produce no profit. Why should the people continue holding expensive funeral rites then?
At the time of Duke
The King of Ch`i once asked Viscount Wên how to govern a state well. In reply Viscount Wên said: "Indeed, reward and punishment as means of political control are sharp weapons. Your Majesty should have them in your grip and never show them to anybody else. For ministers turn to reward and honour like wild deer going to luxuriant grass."
The King of Yüeh once asked High Official Chung,
"I want to attack Wu. Is it practicable?" "Certainly practicable," replied
Chung. "Our rewards are liberal and of faith; our punishments are strict and
definite. If Your Majesty wants to know the effect of reward and punishment,
why should Your Majesty hesitate to try
When Wu Ch`i was Governor of the Western River
District under Marquis Wu of Wey, Ch`in had a small castle standing close by
the state border. Wu Ch`i wanted to attack it, for if it were not got rid of,
it would remain a serious harm to the farmers in the neighbourhood. Yet, to get
rid of it, he could not enlist sufficient armed troops. Thereupon he leaned the
shaft of a carriage outside the north gate and ordered that anybody able to
remove the shaft to the outside of the south gate should be awarded a
first-class field and a first-class residence. Yet nobody dared to remove it.
As soon as somebody removed it, he was rewarded according to the order. All at
once Wu Ch`i placed one picul of red beans outside the east gate and ordered
that anybody able to remove it to the outside of the west gate should be
rewarded similarly. This time men struggled to remove it. Thereupon he issued
the order, "On storming the castle
When Li K`uei was Governor of the Upper Land under Marquis Wên of Wey, he wanted every man to shoot well. So he issued the order that men involved in any unsettled legal dispute should be ordered to shoot the target, and those who hit the target should win the suit and those who missed it should lose it. As soon as the order was issued, everybody started to practise archery day and night and never stopped. When they came to war with the Ch`ins, they imposed a crushing defeat upon the enemy inasmuch as every one of them was a good archer.
Once a slum-dweller of Ch`ung-mên in Sung, by observing funeral rites, injured his health and became very thin. Regarding him as filially pious to his parents, the sovereign raised him and appointed him Master of Official Rites. In the following year more than ten men died of physical injury by observing funeral rites. Now, sons observe funeral rites for their parents because they love them. Even then the sons can be encouraged with rewards. How much more can ordinary people be encouraged by the ruler and superior?
The King of Yüeh schemed to attack Wu. As he
wanted everybody to make light of death in war, once when he went out and saw
an angry frog, he saluted it accordingly. "Why should Your Majesty pay it such
respects?" asked his attendants. "Because it possesses a courageous spirit,"
replied the King. Starting from the following year every year there were more
than ten men who begged to offer
According to a different source: King Kou-chïen of Yüeh once saw an angry frog and saluted it, when the coachman asked, "Why does Your Majesty salute it?" In reply the King said, "A frog having a courageous spirit as such does deserve my salute!" Hearing this, both gentry and commons said: "The spirited frog was saluted by the King, to say nothing of the gentry and commons who are brave." That year there were men who cut off their heads to death and offered their heads to the King. Therefore, the King of Yüeh in order to wage a successful war of revenge against Wu experimented on his instructions. When he set fire to a tower and beat the drum, the people rushed at the fire because reward was due to the fire; when he faced a river and beat the drum, the people rushed at the water because reward was due to the water; and when on the war front, the people had their heads cut off and stomachs chopped open with no frightened mind because reward was due to combat. If so, it goes without saying that to promote the wise in accordance with the law reward would be even more useful than on those occasions.
Marquis Chao of Han once ordered men to store up
old trousers. The attendants remarked: "Your Highness is rather unkind, not
giving old trousers to servants around but storing them up." "The reason is not
what you, gentlemen, know," said Marquis Chao in response. "I have heard that
an enlightened sovereign, though fond of frowning and smiling, always frowns
because there is something to frown at and smiles because there is something to
smile at. Now, trousers are not as simple as sneers and
Eels resemble snakes, silkworms resemble moths. When men see snakes, they are frightened; when they see moths, their hair stands up. Nevertheless, women pick up silkworms and fishermen grasp eels. Thus, where there lies profit, people forget their dislike and all become as brave as Mêng Pên and Chuan Chu.
The King of Wey once said to the King of Chêng
King Hsüan of Ch`i ordered men to play the Yü
instrument and always had three hundred men in the orchestra.
Chao sent men out to ask for reinforcements from Han through the good office of Shên Tzŭ in order thereby to attack Wey. Shên Tzŭ wanted to speak to the Ruler of Han but was afraid lest His Highness should suspect him of accepting bribes from foreign authorities. Yet if he did not do so, he feared lest he should incur hatred from Chao. Thereupon he sent Chao Shao and Han Ta to see the moves and looks of His Highness before he started speaking. Thus at home he could foretell the opinion of Marquis Chao and abroad could render meritorious service to Chao.
When the allied forces of the three states
Marquis Ying said to the King of Ch`in: "Your
Majesty already conquered the districts of Yüan-yeh, Lan-t`ien, and Yang-hsia,
held under control the land within the River boundaries, and dominated the
affairs of Liang and Chêng.
P`ang Ching, a prefect, sent tradesmen out on a mission. Suddenly he recalled the sheriff from among them, stood with him for awhile, gave him no special instruction and sent him off finally. The tradesmen thought the prefect and the sheriff had had some private talk and therefore would not confide in the sheriff. On the way they dared not commit any villainy.
Tai Huan, Premier of Sung, at night sent men out and said to them, "For several nights I have heard somebody riding in a covered wagon going to the residence of Li Shih. Carefully find that out for me?" The servants came back with the report that they had seen no covered wagon but somebody bringing a bamboo chest as present and speaking with Li Shih, and that after a while Li Shih accepted the chest.
The Sovereign of Chou lost jade bodkins and
ordered officials to search for them. For three days they could not find them.
The Sovereign of Chou then ordered men to look for them and found them inside
the room of some private house. "Now I know the officials do not attend to
their
The Prime Minister of Shang once sent a petty
official out, and asked him upon his return what he had seen in the
market-place. "Nothing," replied the official. "Yet you must have seen
something. What was that?" asked the Premier insistently. "There were outside
the south gate of the market-place a number of ox carts, through which one
could barely walk," replied the official. Accordingly, the Premier instructed
the messenger not to tell anybody else what he had asked about. Then he
summoned the mayor, blamed him, and asked him why there was so much ox dung
outside the gate of the
Marquis Chao of Han once held his nails in his fist, pretending to have lost one of his nails, and was very anxious to find it. One of his attendants purposely cut off one of his nails and presented it to His Highness. Thereby Marquis Chao comprehended the insincerity of the attendant.
Marquis Chao of Han sent horsemen out into the
local districts. When the servants came back to report, he asked them what they
had seen. "Nothing," replied they. "Yet
The Sovereign of Chou issued an order to look for crooked canes. The officials sought after them for several days but could not find any. The Sovereign of Chou sent men out in secret to look for them and found them within one day. Thereupon he said to the officials: "Now I know the officials do not attend to their duties. It is very easy to find crooked canes, but the officials could not find any. I ordered men to look for them and found them within one day. How can you be called `loyal'? " The officials all trembled for fear of his sagacity, thinking His Majesty was divine and enlightened.
When Po P`i was a prefect, his coachman was unclean and had a beloved concubine. So he employed a petty official to pretend to love her in order thereby to detect the secret affairs of the coachman.
Hsi-mên Pao, Prefect of Yah, once pretended to have lost the linchpin of his carriage and therefore ordered officials to look for it. As they could not find it, he sent out men to search for it and found it inside the room of some private house.
When the Lord of Shan-yang
When Nao Ch`ih heard about the hatred of the King of Ch`i for him, he fabricated an envoy from Ch`in in order thereby to know the truth.
Some Ch`is wanted to create disturbances and were
afraid the King might know their conspiracy beforehand. So they pretended to
drive away their favourites and let
Once Tzŭ-chih, Premier of Yen, while seated
indoors, asked deceptively, "What was it that just ran outdoors? A white
horse?" All his attendants said they had seen nothing running outdoors.
Meanwhile, someone ran out after it and came back with the report that there
had been
Once there were litigants. Tzŭ-ch`an separated them and never allowed them to speak to each other. Then he inverted their words and told each the other's arguments and thereby found the vital facts involved in the case.
Duke Ssŭ of Wei once sent men out to go through the pass as travellers. There the officers made them serious trouble, wherefore they bribed the officers with gold. The officers, accordingly, released them. Later, Duke Ssŭ said to the officers, "At a certain time there came certain travellers to go through the pass. Since they gave you gold, you sent them away, did you?" Thereby the officers were frightened and thought Duke Ssŭ was clear-minded.
Through the kind assistance given by the Text Book Committee of UNESCO the publication of this Second Volume of The Works of Han Fei Tzŭ has been made possible twenty years after the publication of the First Volume. It is an encouraging sign of the demand for the work that the First Volume has just been exhausted and a re-issue, also with the aid of UNESCO, has been necessitated. Unfortunately it was not given to the translator, Wen-Kuei Liao, to live to see the Second Volume of his work in print, nor has the Introductory Volume, planned by him, ever been issued.
The publisher's thansk are due to Milton Rosenthal for his help in negotiating the grant from UNESCO, and to Dr. Neville Whymant for reading the proofs, compiling the Index and suggesting minor alterations in the text.
Arthur Probsthain.
London, October, 1959.
Of the six minutiae, the first is said to be "authority
left in the hands of the inferior"; the second, "difference of ministers in
interest from the ruler and their consequent dependence upon foreign support";
the third, "resort to disguise and falsification"; the fourth, "antinomies in
matters of advantage and harm"; the fifth, "mutual
Authority and position should not be lent to anybody else. If
the sovereign loses one, the minister would turn that into one hundred. Thus,
if the minister can borrow power and position from the ruler, his strength
would multiply. Should his strength multiply, then men in and out of the court
would be utilized by him. If men in and out of the court are utilized by him,
then the lord of men would be deluded. The saying is based in Lao Tan's
discussion
v. Lao
Tzŭ's Tao Tah Ching, Chap. XXXVI.
Ruler and minister differ in interest. Therefore, ministers are
never loyal. As soon as the minister's
Matters of falsification and disguise make the lord of men miss
what he ought to censure and make the ministers accomplish their private
interests. Thus, the gate-men poured water but I-shê was censured; the Lord of
Chi-yang forged the King's order but his two enemies paid for the crime;
Ssŭ-ma Hsi killed Yuan Ch'ien but Chi Hsin was censured; Chêng Hsiu said
the new court ladies disliked the bad smell of His Majesty's breath and the
newcomers had their noses cut off; Fei Wu-chi
If any event happens and has any advantage at all, the sovereign
must master it. If it has any disadvantage, he must discern the opposite. For
this reason, the enlightened sovereign, in estimating the welfare of the
country, would reflect on the advantage when the state has any disadvantage;
when the minister has any disadvantage, he would deliberate upon its opposite.
The saying is based on the appointment of Ch`ên Hsü to premiership upon the
arrival of the Ch`u troops, and on the rise of the price of millet seed because
of the granary-keeper's dishonesty. Thus, Chao Hsi-hsü arrested the
reed-seller; Marquis Chao-hsi
The situation of mutual confusions in position causes
disturbances. Therefore, the enlightened sovereign takes precautions against
it. For this reason, Li-chi of Chin killed Shên-shêng; the Mistress of Chêng
used poisonous drugs; Chou Hsü of Wei murdered his Ruler, Yüan; Prince Kên
occupied Eastern Chou; Prince Chih enjoyed His Majesty's exceeding favour,
wherefore Shang-ch`ên actually caused a disturbance; Yen Sui and Han K`uei
rivalled each other, wherefore Duke Ai encountered rebels; T`ien Ch`ang and Kan
Chih, Tai Huan and Huang Hsi, were enemies,
What one state works after is to observe secretly the on-going
affairs in its enemy states and take advantage of their weaknesses. If the lord
of men is not alert, enemies will dismiss or appoint his men. Thus King Wên
financed Fei Chung; the King of Ch`in worried over the envoy from Ch`u; Li Chü
got rid of Chung-ni; and Kan Hsiang obstructed Kan Mu. For the same reason,
Tzŭ-hsü spread rumours wherefore Tzŭ-ch`ang was taken into service;
beauties were accepted, wherefore Yü and Kuo went to ruin; a letter was
falsified, wherefore Ch`ang Hung was executed;
Regarding matters of confusion and suspicion and of dismissal
and appointment, the enlightened sovereign
So much above for the canons.
High authority is the pool of the lord of men. Ministers are the
fish swimming in high authority. Just as the fish once lost outside the pool
cannot be recovered, so can the high authority of the lord of men once lost to
the ministers not be recovered. The ancient
The Lord of Ching-kuo, Premier of Ch`i, once talked with an old
acquaintance in an evening,
At the time of Duke Li of Chin, the Six Nobles were very
powerful. Therefore, Hsü T`ong and Ch`ang Yü-ch`iao remonstrated with him,
saying: "When chief vassals are powerful and influential, they rival the
sovereign, cause disputes in state affairs, and, by accepting bribes from
foreign powers, forming cliques at home, and violating the law of the state,
intimidate the sovereign, wherefore the state is always endangered." "Right,"
said the Duke, and accordingly, wiped out three Nobles. Again, Hsü T`ong and
Ch`ang Yü-chiao remonstrated with him, saying: "Indeed, to punish certain and
not all of the men guilty of the same crime is to make the survivors resent and
watch for a chance." In
Chou Hou, Premier of Ching, was influential and dictated to all state affairs. Suspecting him, the King of Ching asked the attendants about his rampancy. In reply all of them said "Nothing!" as though the reply came out from one mouth.
A man of Yen was easily bewildered and therefore would bathe in dogs' dung. The wife of the man of Yen was intimate with a bachelor. Once, when her husband came home early from outside, the fellow happened to be going out from the home. "Who is the visitor"? asked the husband. "No visitor at all," replied the wife, Then he asked the servants, who all said "None!" as though the reply came from one mouth. "You certainly became insane." So saying, his wife bathed him in dogs' dung.
According to a different source: A man of Yen, named Li Chi,
would go far away. His wife was intimate with a bachelor. One day he suddenly
came home while the fellow was in. Over this his wife worried, so her woman
servant said to her: "Let the young gentleman go naked and with his hairs
dispersed rush straight out through the door. Then all of us will pretend to
have been nothing." Thereupon the young fellow followed the plan and ran out
fast through the door. "Who is that man?" asked Chi. "Nobody," replied everyone
in the house. "Have I seen a ghost?" "Certainly." "What shall I do then?" "Get
the dung of the five
Among the Weis, there were a man and his wife who once during their prayer said as benediction, "Give us no misery but one hundred rolls of cloth." "Why is the benediction so simple?" wondered the husband. "What? If it be more elaborate than this, then you might be thinking of buying a concubine thereby," replied the wife.
The King of Ching wanted the various princes to take up office
in the courts of the neighbouring states. "It is
The clans of Mêng Sun, Shu Sun, and Chi Sun, united their
strength and molested Duke Chao, till they usurped his state and managed all
public affairs at their pleasure. At first, when the Three Huans
Kung-shu was Premier of Han and, furthermore,
Chieh Huang was minister to the King of Wey but was on good terms with Han. Accordingly, he sent for troops from Han and made them attack Wey. Then he purposely offered to sue for peace on behalf of His Majesty in order thereby to elevate his own position.
The King of Yüeh attacked the King of Wu. The King of Wu
apologized and offered submission. When the King of Yüeh was thinking of
forgiving him, Fan Li and High
Ta-ch`êng Wu
Ssŭ-ma Hsi, minister to the ruler of Central Hills, was on good terms with Chao and therefore always reported in secret to the King of Chao the stratagems of Central Hills.
Lü Ts`ang, minister to the King of Wey, was on good terms with Ch`in and Ching. Once he gave Ch`in and Ching a secret hint and made them attack Wey. Then he offered to sue for peace in order thereby to make his own position secure.
Sung Shih was a general of Wey: Wei Chün, a general of Ching.
When the two States took up arms against each other,
Pai Kuei was Premier of Wey; Pao Ch`ien, Premier of Han. The former said to the latter: "If you assist me in Wey with the influence of Han while I support you in Han with the influence of Wey, then I will always remain in power in Wey while you in Han."
One of the Middle Officers of Ch`i, named I-shê, once had a
drinking feast with the King. Greatly drunk, he went out and leaned on the gate
of the lobby. Thereupon the
The King of Wey had two ministers who were not on good terms with the Lord of Chi-yang. Once the Lord of Chi-yang purposely made his men falsify the King's order to scheme to attack himself. Thereupon the King sent out men to ask the Lord of Chi-yang, "Who bears you a grudge?" "Thy servant is not at feud with anybody," replied the Lord, "but he has not been on good terms with two of your Majesty's ministers. Still that displeasure should not have come to this!" The King then asked the attendants about it, and all said, "Of course!" The King, accordingly, censured the two ministers.
Chi Hsin and Yuan Ch`ien were at feud with each other. Ssŭ-ma Hsi came recently to bad terms with Chi Hsin, and so secretly ordered men to assassinate Yuan Ch`ien. The ruler of Central Hills, thinking Chi Hsin was the contriver of the murder, held him guilty.
The King of Ching had a favourite concubine named Chêng Hsiu. As
the King newly got a beautiful girl, Chêng Hsiu purposely told her, "The King
was very fond of seeing people covering their mouths with hands. Be sure to
cover your mouth when
According to a different source: Once the King of Wey presented the King of Ching a beauty. The King of Ching was greatly pleased by her. His royal concubine, Chêng Hsiu, knowing the King loved her with pleasure, also loved her with pleasure even more than the King did, and among clothes and ornaments selected whatever she wanted and gave them to her. "Madame, knowing I love the new lady, loves her with pleasure even more than I do," remarked the King. "This is the way the dutiful son should support his parents, and loyal subjects should serve the ruler." Knowing the King never thought she was jealous, the royal concubine purposely told the new lady, "The King loves you very much but dislikes your nose. When you see the King, always cover your nose with hands. Then the King will forever love you." Thereafter the new lady followed the advice, and, every time she saw the King, would cover her nose. So the King asked his royal concubine, "Why does the new lady always cover her nose every time she sees me?" "How can I know?" said the royal concubine. The King kept asking her insistently. "Just a while ago," said she in reply, "I heard her saying she disliked to smell the odour of Your Majesty." "Cut off her nose," said the King in anger. As the royal consort had instructed the coachman to carry out any order definitely as soon as the King said any word, the coachman, accordingly drew out his sword and cut off the beauty's nose.
Fei Wu-chi was a courtier of the Magistrate of Ching. Ch`i Yüan
newly came to serve the magistrate. The magistrate
Hsi Shou and Chang Shou were at feud with each other. Ch`ên Hsü
newly came on bad terms with
There was in the Central Hills State a humble prince, whose
horse was very skinny and carriage terribly worn-out. Some of the chamberlains
who had a private hatred for him made a request on his behalf to the King,
There was in Wey an old literatus who was not on good terms with the Lord of Chi-yang. One of the guests of the Lord had private hatred for the old literatus and so purposely assaulted the old literatus and killed him. Considering it a distinguished service to the Lord of Chi-yang, he said: "Thy servant killed him because he had been at feud with Your Excellency." Hearing this, the Lord of Chi-yang, without investigating his motive, rewarded him.
According to a different source: The Lord of Chi-yang had a
petty official who was not noticed by his master but wanted to win his special
favour. Once upon a time, the Ch`i State sent an old literatus out to dig herbs
in the Horse Pear Mountain. In order to render the master some meritorious
service, the petty official of Chi-yang went in to see the Lord and said: "Ch`i
sent an old literatus out to dig herbs in the Horse Pear Mountain. In name he
is digging herbs but in fact he is spying the country of Your Highness. If Your
Highness does not
Ch`ên Hsü, minister to the King of Wey, was on good terms with the King of Ching. Once he induced Ching to attack Wey. Then he concluded the peace terms on behalf of the King of Wey. He, accordingly, became Premier of Wey through the influence of Ching.
At the time of Marquis Chao of Han seeds of millet
When Chao Hsi-hsü was in official service in Ching, once someone set fire to the openings of the state storehouses and silos but it was not known who he was. Thereupon Chao Hsi-hsü ordered officials to arrest sellers of reeds and examine them, and found out they were actually the incendiaries.
At the time of Marquis Chao-hsi, one day when the cook brought in the meal, the soup had pieces of raw liver in it. Therefore, the Marquis sent for the second cook, blamed him, and asked, "Why did you put pieces of raw liver in the soup for me?" Bowing his head to the ground, the cook admitted his capital crime and confessed that he had thereby intended to get rid of the chief cook.
According to a different source: Once when Marquis Hsi was going
to take a bath, the hot water had pebbles in it. Marquis Hsi then asked the
attendants if anybody would take up the vacancy upon the dismissal of the
bath-boy. "Certainly," replied the attendants. "Bring him here," said Marquis
Hsi. Then he questioned the man why he had put pebbles in the hot water. In
reply the man said: "If the bath-boy is dismissed, thy servant will be able to
take his
At the time of Duke Wên, one day when the cook brought in roast
meat, it was twisted with hairs. So Duke Wên sent for the cook and asked him:
"Do you intend to choke me to death? Why did you twist the roast meat with
hairs?" The cook bowed his head to the ground, repeated salutations, begged for
pardon, and said: "Thy servant has committed three capital crimes: He held the
grindstone and whetted the knife till the knife became as sharp as the
Kan-chiang sword. In cutting the meat it tore the meat but the hairs did not
tear. This is the first crime of which thy servant is guilty. Then he held the
awl and pierced through the meat chop but failed to see the hairs, which is the
second crime. Finally, he kept the charcoal burning in the cooking stove so
that all the meat became red and was roasted and well done, but the hairs were
not burned at all, which is the third crime. Could there be nobody inside the
hall who has been jealous
According to a different source: Once upon a time, when Duke
P`ing entertained guests at a wine feast, a petty official brought in roast
meat which was twisted with hairs. Duke P`ing sprang to his feet and was going
to kill the cook and allowed nobody to disobey his order. The cook cried to
heaven and said: "Alas! Thy servant has committed three crimes, and how does he
not know the death penalty for them himself?" "What do you mean by saying
that?" Imperial Readings has no ### above ###.
When Marquis Hsiang was Premier of Ch`in, Ch`i was powerful.
Marquis Hsiang wanted to proclaim the Ruler of Ch`in emperor, which Ch`i
refused to recognize. Then he offered to proclaim the Ruler of Ch`i eastern
emperor. Thereby
At the same time of Duke Hsien of Chin, Li-chi enjoyed the same
privileges as the real duchess. She wanted her son, Hsi-ch`i, to replace the
heir apparent, Shên-shêng, and
The Ruler of Chêng had already installed an heir apparent,
whereas his beloved beautiful girl wanted him to take her
Chou Hsü of Wei was influential in Wei and behaved like the Ruler. The body of officials and the masses of people were all afraid of his position and influence. Eventually Chou Hsü murdered the Ruler and usurped the reins of government.
Prince Chao was heir apparent of Chou. His younger brother, Prince Kên, was in special favour with the ruler. Upon the death of the royal father, Kên occupied Eastern Chou, rose in rebellion and partitioned the original territory into two states.
King Ch`êng of Ch`u proclaimed Shang-ch`êng heir apparent. Later, he wanted to take Prince Chih. Therefore, Shang-ch`ên caused a disturbance, and finally attacked and murdered King Ch`êng.
According to a different source: King Ch`êng
Han Kuei was Premier to Marquis Ai of Han. Yen Sui was highly regarded by the Ruler. So the two abhorred each other. One day, Yen Sui ordered men to assassinate Han Kuei at the court. Han Kuei ran towards His Highness and held him in his arms. At last the assassins pierced through Han Kuei and also through Marquis Ai.
T`ien Hêng was Premier of Ch`i. Kan Chih was highly regarded by Duke Chien. The two hated each other and were about to kill each other. T`ien Hêng, by distributing private favours among the masses of people, took over the country, and finally killed Duke Chien and usurped the reins of government.
Tai Huan was Prime Minister of Sung. Huang Hsi was highly regarded by the Ruler. The two disputed in affairs and abhorred each other. In the long run Huang Hsi killed the Ruler of Sung and usurped the reins of government.
Hu Tu once said: "If the ruler of a state has a favourite
inside,
The Ruler of Chêng once asked Chêng Chao, "How is the Crown
Prince?" "The Crown Prince is not yet born," was the reply. "The Crown Prince
has already been set up," said the Ruler, "but you said, `He is not yet born.'
Why?" In reply Chêng Chao said: "Although the Crown Prince has been set up, yet
Your Highness loves women and never
King Wên financed Fei Chung, made him stay around Chow, and told him to admonish Chow and disturb his mind.
The King of Ching once sent an envoy to Ch`in. The King of Ch`in
showed him great courtesies. Later, he said: "If any enemy state has worthies
it causes us worries. Now that the envoy of the King of Ching is very worthy, I
am worried over it." Then the body of officials advised him, saying: "Win the
envoy of the King of Ching to our side with the worthiness and saintliness of
Your Majesty and with the resources and generosity of our country. Why does
Your Majesty not cultivate deep friendship with him and pretend
When Chung-ni was governing the Lu State, no one would pick up
things dropped on the road. Over this Duke Ching of Ch`i worried. Therefore, Li
Chü said to Duke Ching: "To get rid of Chung-ni is as easy as to blow off a
hair. Why does Your Highness not invite him to office with big emolument and
high position and present Duke Ai
The King of Ch`u said to Kan Hsiang: "I want to support Kan Mu
with Ch`u's influence and make him premier of Ch`i Is this practicable?"
"Impracticable," was the reply. "Why impracticable?" asked the King. In reply
Kan Hsiang said: "Kan Mu when young studied under Master Shih Chü. Shih Chü,
while gate-man of Shang-ts`ai, neither served his master well nor provided his
family well, wherefore he was known throughout All-under-Heaven to be offensive
and cruel. Nevertheless, Kan Mu served him with obedience. King Hui is
enlightened, Chang Yi is discriminating. Kan Mu has served them and has been
appointed to ten successive offices but has committed no fault whatever. This
shows Kan Mu's worthiness." Then the King asked, "To find a worthy
Wu was invading Ching. Tzŭ-hsü then sent men out to spread rumours in Ching that if Tzŭ-ch`i, were taken into service by Ching, Wu would attack Ching, but if Tzŭ-ch`ang were taken into service, she would leave them free. When the Chings heard about these words, they took Tzŭ-ch`ang into service and dismissed Tzŭ-ch`i from his office. The Wus then fell upon them and triumphed over them.
Duke Hsien of Chin wanted to invade Yü and Kuo and therefore
made a present of the team of the Chü breed, the jade of Ch`ui-chi, and girl
musicians, twice eight in number, in order thereby to bewilder
When Shu Hsiang was slandering Ch`ang Hung, he
When Duke Huan of Chêng was about to raid K`uai, he asked about
the able men, worthy ministers, eloquent, intelligent scholars, and daring,
gallant warriors, recorded
A
Hsiang Tzŭ, Magistrate of Yeh, was secretly on good terms
with the attendants of the King of Chao. Whenever the King of Chao schemed to
raid Yeh, Hsiang Tzŭ always heard about it and forewarned the King of
Wey. As the King of Wey
At the time of Duke Ssŭ
II. If the lord of men, in listening to words, does not take
function and utility as objective, dialecticians will present such absurd
discussions as the Stories of the Bramble Thorn and the White Horse. If there
is no aim and mark concerned, then every archer will become as skilful as Yi.
The lord of men inclined towards theories is always like the King of Yen
attempting to learn the way to immortality. Those men proficient in
argumentation are all like the Chêngs contending
III. Indeed, when two persons work together, they blame each other
for losses and hope for gains from each other; when one works for himself, the
affair proceeds well. Thus, even father and son sometime blame and scold
IV. Wherever lies profit, there people go; wherever fame is
offered, there officers die. Therefore, if any
V. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "In
him, himself inert, the people put no trust."
VI. If small faith is well accomplished, great faith will
naturally be established. Therefore, the enlightened sovereign accumulates
faith. If reward and punishment are of no faith, then prohibitions and orders
cannot prevail. The basis of the saying is found in Duke Wên's attack on Yüan
and in Chi Chêng's rescue of the starvelings. For the same reason, Wu Ch`i
waited for his old friend till he came to dine with him; Marquis Wên met the
men of Yü at the appointed time before he started hunting. Therefore, the
So much for the canons.
Mi Tzŭ Chien governed San-fu. Once Yu-jo saw him and asked
him. "Why have you become so thin?" In reply Mi Tzŭ said: "His Highness,
not knowing my inferiority and unworthiness, appointed me Governor of San-fu.
The official duties are urgent. My mind is always worried over them. Therefore
I have become thin." Thereupon Yu-jo remarked: "In bygone days Shun played the
five-stringed guitar and sang the South Wind Poem
(Li Ki, Bk. XVII, sec. ii,
i, f., Legge's trans.)
The King of Ch`u once said to T`ien Chiu: "Mo Tzŭ was a
celebrity for learning. What he personally practised
Royal Readings has no ### above ###.
Mo Tzŭ once constructed a wooden kite, which it took him
three years to complete. After flying for one day, it broke. His disciples
said: "The master's skill is so excellent as to make the wooden kite fly." Mo
Tzŭ said: "I am not as skilful as the maker of the cross-bar for yoking
the oxen. He uses a piece of wood eight inches or one foot
The King of Sung was at feud with Ch`i. When he was building the
war palace, the Singer Kuei led the chorus of the workmen. As a result, the
passers-by stopped to see them while the builders never felt tired. Hearing
about this, the King summoned Kuei and rewarded him therefor.
Indeed, good drugs are bitter to the mouth, but intelligent people are willing to take them because they know the drugs after being taken will cure their diseases. Loyal words are unpleasant to the ears, but the enlightened sovereign listens to them, because he knows they will bring about successful results.
Once a man of Sung asked permission to engrave a female ape on
the edge of a bramble thorn for the King of Yen. According to him, the King
must remain purified for three months before he could see it. The King,
accordingly, supported him with the emolument
According to a different source: Once the King of Yen was
recruiting skilful artists, when a man of Wei asked
Ni Yüeh
Of the above-stated propositions, the first and the
last are true while the second and the third are false because it is
self-evident that the number of horses, taken as a whole, is far greater than
the number of white horses only. The subject-predicate relationships in these
four propositions, therefore, is neither mutual identification nor mutual
exclusion, but subjective inclusion. Accordingly, The white horse is not
the horse"—true.A white horse is not
a horse"—false.The white horse is not
a horse"—false.A white horse is not
the horse"—true.the white
horse is not the horse but is a horse, and a white horse
is not the horse but is a horse. Ni Yüeh was right if by ### he meant the
first or the last proposition; but his opponents could be equally right if by
### they meant the second or the third proposition. He always won because he
seemed able to distinguish between the subject-predicate relationship of
identification and that of inclusion while his opponents were apparently unable
to do the same. Were there Article and Number in Chinese Grammar, no dispute as
such could take place.
Indeed, suppose you sharpen an arrow, draw the bow, and shoot
the arrow, then though you close your eyes and shoot at random, the pointed
head of the arrow is bound to hit the tip of an autumn spikelet. However,
unless you can hit the same spot again, you cannot be called a skilful archer.
For you have no constant aim and mark. Now if the target were five inches in
diameter and the arrow were shot from a distance of one hundred steps,
Once a traveller taught the King of Yen the way to immortality.
The King then sent men to learn it. Before the men sent to learn completed
their study, the traveller died. Enraged thereby, the King chastized the
students. Thus, the King did not know that he himself had been deceived by the
traveller, but censured the students for their tardiness. Indeed, to believe in
an unattainable thing and chastize innocent subjects is the calamity of
Once there were men of Chêng contending for seniority in age. One man said, "My age is the same as Yao's." Another man said, "I am as old as the elder brother of the Yellow Emperor." They brought the dispute to the court, but the judge could not make any decision. Finally he ruled that the one who was the last to stop arguing won the case.
Once a traveller, who painted the whip for the Ruler of Chou,
spent three years to complete it. When the Ruler saw it, it looked exactly like
a plainly varnished whip. Thereby the Ruler of Chou was enraged. Then the
painter of the whip said, "Build a wall twenty feet
Once upon a time there was a traveller drawing for the King of
Ch`i. "What is the hardest thing to draw?" asked the King. "Dogs and horses are
the hardest." "Then what is the easiest?" "Devils and demons are the easiest.
Indeed, dogs and horses are what people know and see at dawn and dusk in front
of them. To draw them no distortion is
In Ch`i there was a retired scholar named T`ien Chung. Once a
man of Sung named Ch`ü Ku saw him and said: "Ku
Yü Ch`ing was building a house, and said to the carpenter, "This house will be too high." Then the carpenter said: "This is a new house, its plaster being wet and its beams supporting the eaves still unseasoned. Indeed the wet plaster is heavy and the unseasoned beams are curved. With curved beams supporting wet plaster, the house ought to become low enough." "That will not be so," said Yü Ch`ing. "After a number of days, the plaster will be dry and the beams will be seasoned. When dry, the plaster will be light; when seasoned, the beams will be straight. With straight beams supporting dry plaster, the house will be still higher." Thereby the carpenter gave in and did the building in the way Yü Ch`ing wanted, but the house collapsed.
According to a different source: Yü Ch`ing was going to build a house, when the carpenter said: "The wood is unseasoned and the plaster is wet. Indeed, when unseasoned, the wood is curved; when wet, the plaster is heavy. With curved wood supporting heavy plaster, the house, though it may be completed now, will certainly collapse as time goes on." In response to this Yü Ch`ing said: "When dry, the wood will become straight; when dry the plaster will become light. Suppose the wood and the plaster are really dry now. Then they will become lighter and straighter day by day and will never collapse even after a long period of time." Thereby the carpenter gave in and did the building in the way Yü Ch`ing wanted. In the meantime following the completion, the house actually collapsed.
Fan Chü
The sayings of Fan Chü and Yü Ch`ing are all eloquent in
structure and excellent in diction to the realities of things. Yet the lord of
men is always delighted at such sayings and never suppresses them. This is the
cause of his failure. Indeed, not to seek for the merits in attaining order and
strength but to covet the voices in making eloquent speeches and beautiful
compositions, is to reject the experts in
To be sure, children, when they play together, take soft earth
as cooked rice, muddy water as soup, and wood shavings as slices of meat.
However, at dusk they would go home for supper because dust rice and mud soup
can be played with but cannot be eaten. Indeed, tributes to the legacy of
remote antiquity, are appreciative and eloquent but
If one receives no good care in his childhood from his parents,
when he grows up, as a son he shows resentment at them. Though the son grows to
be a big and strong man, his provisions for his parents are rather scanty. Then
the parents become angry and reprimand him. Now, father and son are the closest
relatives. Yet they either reprimand or show resentment at each other simply
because they are driven together by force of circumstances and neither can
Indeed, in the case of workmen selling their services in sowing
seeds and tilling farms, the master would at the expense of his housekeeping
give them delicious food and by appropriating cash and cloth
Duke Wên attacked Sung but made a declaration
Yüeh was attacking Wu. The King of Yüeh made a
A princess of Ts`ai became a concubine of Duke Huan. One day
Duke Huan and she went on a boat. She moved the boat at random. Much
frightened, Duke Huan stopped her but she kept on doing it. Enraged, he
divorced her. Soon he recalled her. But the Ts`ais replied that they had
married her out elsewhere. Thereat Duke Huan became very angry and thought of
attacking Ts`ai. Uncle Chung, accordingly,
Wu Ch`i commanded Wey's forces in attacking Central Hills. Among
his soldiers someone became sick of boils. Therefore, Wu Ch`i knelt down
himself and sucked the pus out of the boil. The mother of the wounded soldier
was
The Father Sovereign of Chao once ordered masons to use a
scaling ladder, thereby climb Mountain Fan-wu, and
King Chao of Ch`in ordered masons to use a scaling ladder,
thereby climb the Hua Mountain, on the summit construct a backgammon board with
the kernels of pines and cypresses and arrows eight feet long and chess pieces
eight inches long, and inscribe on the board, "King Chao once played
Imperial Readings has no ### below ###.
Duke Wên on the way to his homeland reached the Yellow River,
where he ordered all bamboo and wooden vessels for food to be thrown into the
river, the sheets and mats to be thrown into the river, the men whose hands and
feet are thick and chapped and those whose faces and eyes were black or dark to
follow from behind. Hearing about this, Uncle
Digests of Classics has ### below ###.
Once a man of the Prefecture of Chêng, named Po Tzŭ, asked his wife to make a pair of trousers. "How would you like to have your trousers made this time?" asked the wife. "Like my old trousers," replied the husband. Accordingly the wife tore the new trousers and made them look like the old ones.
Once a man of the Prefecture of Chêng came by a yoke but did not
know its name. So he asked somebody else, "What thing is this?"
A man of Wei intended to shoot arrows with strings tied to them. When a bird came, he beckoned to the bird with the ball of string. The bird was frightened. He did not shoot.
Once the wife of Po Tzŭ, a man of the Prefecture of Chêng, went to the market, bought turtles, and was bringing them home. Passing by the Ying Water, she thought the turtles were thirsty, let them go drinking, and lost her turtles.
Once upon a time a youngster was attending an elder man drinking
wine. But every time the elder took a drink, he would himself drink,
According to a different source: A man of Lu wanted to learn
etiquette.
According to another different source: A youngster of Sung wanted to learn etiquette. Once at a feast he saw elder people drinking a toast and not leaving a single drop. So he started finishing the whole cup though not drinking a toast.
It is said in an ancient book, "Gird yourself, belt yourself!" A man of Sung, who once ran across this passage, doubled his sash and girdled himself with it accordingly. "Why do you do that?" asked someone else. "The ancient book saying so, so must I do," was the reply.
It is said in an ancient record,
A man of Ying once wrote a letter to the Prime Minister of Yen. He wrote the letter at night. When the light was not bright, he, accordingly, said to the candle-holder, "Raise the candle!" So saying he wrote down by mistake the words, "Raise the candle," although raising candles was not the gist of the letter. However, the Prime Minister of Yen on receiving the letter was glad and said: "To raise the candle means to exalt the bright. To exalt the bright means to elevate the worthy and appoint them to office." Therefore, the Premier of Yen spoke to the King about the policy of appointing the worthy to office, which the King was very glad to carry into effect. In consequence, the state became orderly. As regards the problem of political order, they did attain political order. But it was not the gist of the letter! Thus, scholars of the present world mostly resemble the Premier of Yen in interpreting the meaning of words.
Once a man of Chêng wanted to buy a pair of shoes for himself.
He measured his feet first and left measurements on his seat. He arrived at the
market-place, but had forgotten
Wang Têng, Magistrate of Chung-mou, once in his proposition to
Lord Hsiang of Chao said: "Chung-mou has scholars named Chung-chang and Hsü-i,
whose personal appearances are very refined and whose learning is very erudite.
Why does Your Highness not take them into service?" In reply Lord Hsiang said:
"You go to find them. I will appoint them Middle Officials." Thereupon the
Premier remonstrated with him, saying, "The post of the Middle Official is an
important rank in Chin. Now,
Shu Hsiang sat by Duke P`ing and reported to him on different
affairs. Though the calves of Duke P`ing became sore and the legs numb, yet he
only turned his muscles around but dared not leave his seat. Hearing about
this, everybody in the Chin State said: "Shu Hsiang is a worthy. Duke P`ing
respected him so much that during the interview he only turned his muscles
around but dared not leave his seat." In consequence, men in the Chin State who
resigned from official posts and yearned after Shu Hsiang occupied one-third
A man of Chêng, named Ch`ü Kung, whenever he heard enemies were
coming, would fear lest he himself
The Father Sovereign of Chao sent Li Tz`ŭ to inspect
Central Hills and see whether or not the country could be attacked. Upon his
return Tz`ŭ reported that the country could be attacked and that if His
Majesty did not strike early enough, he would lag behind Ch`i and Yen. "Why can
the country be attacked?" asked the Father Sovereign. In reply Li Tz`ŭ
said: "It is because the Ruler is fond of celebrating retired scholars in rocky
caves. For tens of times, he pulled down his carriage-cover and offered seats
in his carriage when meeting scholars from destitute village gates or narrow
alleys. The times that he paid such courtesies to scholars wearing hemp clothes
as if they were his equals, numbers hundreds." "According to your description
and estimation," remarked the Father Sovereign, "he is a worthy
Imperial Readings has ### in place of ###.
Duke Huan of Ch`i was fond of wearing purple clothes, till
everybody in the country wore purple clothes, too. At that time, nobody could
get one purple thread at the cost of five plain white threads. Worried over
this, Duke Huan said to Kuan Chung, "I am fond of wearing purple clothes, but
purple clothes are very expensive. The hundred surnames in the country like to
wear purple clothes continually. What should I do about that?" "If Your
Highness wants to stop them," replied Kuan Chung, "why doesn't he for a time
not wear any purple clothes at all, and tell the
According to a different source: The King of Ch`i was fond of
wearing purple clothes. So were the people of Ch`i. As a result, in the Ch`i
State with the cost of five plain white threads nobody could buy a purple one.
Over the Book of Poetry, `In him, himself inert, the
people put no trust.' Now, if Your Majesty wants the people to wear no purple
clothes, let Your Majesty take off purple clothes himself and then go to the
court, and, when any officials wearing purple clothes come in, tell him, `Get
away farther! I dislike the bad odour!" In consequence, that day no courtier
wore purple clothes; in a month nobody in the state capital wore purple
clothes; and in a year nobody within the state boundaries wore purple
clothes.
Duke Chien of Chêng once said to Tzŭ-ch`an: "Our country is small and pressed between Ching and Chin. Now that the city-walls of the capital are not in good repair and weapons and armour are not well prepared, we cannot provide against eventualities." "Thy servant has already shut the outer foes far off," said Tzŭ-Ch`an, "and already made the inner defences firm. Though the country is small, yet thy servant does not think it is in danger. May Your Highness not worry over it?" Therefore, Duke Chien had no worry in his life.
According to another source
Duke Hsiang of Sung fought with the Ch`us in the Cho River
Gorge. When the Sung forces had already formed in line, the Ch`u troops had not
yet finished their lines. b.c.) following the great
humiliation.
Once, when Duke Ching of Ch`i travelled to the Small Sea, a
courier rushed from inside the capital to have an audience with him, and said,
"Premier Yen Yin is very ill and about to
King Chao of Wey wanted to have a hand in the official routine
and said to the Lord of Mêng-ch`ang, "I, the King, want to have a hand in the
official routine." "If Your Majesty wants to go through the official routine,"
said the Lord, "why does he not for trial learn and read the legal code?" King
Chao, accordingly, started reading the code. After reading ten and some bamboo
slips,
Confucius said: "The ruler of men is like the basin, the people like water. If the basin is square, the water is square; if the basin is round, the water is round."
The ruler of Tsou was fond of wearing long fringes. So
Shu Hsiang in distributing emoluments bestowed more for the more meritorious and less for the less meritorious.
Marquis Chao of Han once said to Shên Tzŭ, "Laws and rules
are not easy to enforce." "The law is such a principle," said Shên Tzŭ,
"that men of merit are given rewards and able personages are taken into office.
Now, Your Highness establishes laws and rules but grants the attendants'
requests. This is the cause of the difficulty in enforcing laws and rules."
"From now onward," said Marquis Chao, "I know how to enforce laws, and will not
grant anybody any request." One day Shên Tzŭ begged the Marquis to
appoint his elder cousin to an official post. In regard to his request, Marquis
Chao said: "This is not what I learned from you. If I grant you such a request,
I contradict your teaching. I had better not allow your request."
Duke Wên of Chin attacked Yüan. As he packed ten days' food
supplies, he set the time limit at ten days to his High Officers. When ten days
had elapsed, he arrived at Yüan, but in ten days Yüan did not fall. Therefore,
he ordered them to cease hostilities and leave for home. Meanwhile, some men
coming out from the Yüan capital said: "In three more days Yüan will fall." All
the ministers and attendants also remonstrated with him, saying: "The food of
Yüan is running low and her strength is exhausted. May Your
Duke Wên asked Chi Chêng how to rescue the
Once Wu Ch`i went out, met an old friend, and invited him to dinner. "All right. When I come back, I shall dine with you," said the old friend. "I shall wait for you to come," said Wu Tzŭ, and "and then eat". The old friend did not come when evening arrived. Wu Ch`i did not eat all evening and waited. Next day he sent men out to invite his friend. When the friend came, he then dined with him.
Marquis Wên of Wey once made an appointment with the Yüs to go hunting. On the following day the weather happened to be very windy. The attendants stopped Marquis Wên, but he would not listen. "Nobody should break faith," said the Marquis, "because it is very windy. I will not break faith!" Finally he drove the carriage himself, went to the hunting ground against the winds, and told the Yüs to stop the hunting.
One day the wife of Tsêng Tzŭ went to the market. His son
went along with her and kept crying. "You go home," said the mother, "and when
Mother comes home from shopping, Mother will kill a pig for you." When she came
home from the market, Tsêng Tzŭ wanted to catch a pig and kill it. His
wife stopped him and said, "That was just a joke with the child." "Be sure,"
said Tsêng Tzŭ, "children are not supposed to be joked with. They do not
possess any inborn ideas. They depend upon their parents for learning, and
listen to their parents' teachings. Now, if you deceive him, it means you teach
him the way of deception. If the
King Li of Ch`u had an alarm drum. By beating the drum he gave the hundred surnames warnings. One day he took wine and was very drunk and beat the drum. The people were frightened very much. Thereupon the King sent men to stop their fright and said to them, "I was then drunk and playing with the attendants when I struck the drum." The people all gave up the fright. In the course of several months, there was a real alarm. The drum was beaten but the people made no move. Therefore, the King changed his orders and made the signal clear and of faith, so that the people began to have faith in him.
Li K`uei warned the guards of the right and left gates of the camp and said: "Be prudent and alert! The enemies might come at dawn or at dusk to attack you." He repeated the same over and over again. Yet the enemies never came. Both groups of guards became tired and neglected their duties and had no faith in Li K`uei. In the course of several months the Ch`ins came to raid them and almost put the whole army to rout. This is the calamity of being faithless.
According to a different source: Li K`uei fought with the Ch`ins
and said to the guards of the left gates, "Scale the walls quickly! The guards
of the right gate have already gone up." Then he drove to the other flank and
said to the guards of the right gate, "The left have already gone up." The left
and right guards,
Once there were litigants. Tzŭ-ch`an separated them and
never allowed them to speak to each other. Then he inverted
Duke Ssŭ of Wei
II. The sovereign should depend upon his own position and not upon
the faithfulness of the ministers. For this reason, Tung-kuo Ya lodged a
protest against the appointment of Kuan Chung to premiership. The sovereign
should count on his tact and not on the faithfulness of the ministers. For this
reason, Hun Hsien disapproved Duke Wên's policy. Therefore the tactful
sovereign would make reward of faith so as to exert the abilities of the
subjects and make punishment definite so as to forbid wickedness. Though the
ministers have mixed deeds, he would always get the benefit
III. If the distinction between ruler and minister is lost sight
of, the ruler will have to do the same as King Wên, who tied
IV. If the sovereign expects profit from what ought to be
prohibited and prohibits what is profitable, be he
If the Ruler of Ch`i granted his attendants no request and the
Sovereign of Wey listened to no honourable
V. If ministers regard humility and frugality as virtues, then
ranks are not sufficient to encourage and reward them. If favour and glory are
not regulated, ministers will violate and intimidate the ruler. The saying is
based on Miao
VI. If the prestige of the royal house is low, then ministers will refrain from uttering upright words. If self-seeking deeds triumph, then meritorious services for the public will become few. The saying is based on Wên-tzŭ's speaking without reserve, for which his father, Wu-tzŭ, used a stick to whip him, and on Tzŭ-ch`an's loyal remonstrations, for which his father, Tzŭ-kuo, blamed him and was angry at him. Furthermore, Liang Ch`ê enforced the law but Marquis Ch`êng recalled the official seal from him. Kuan Chung acted according to public justice, but his countrymen spoke ill of him and resented his action.
So much for the Canons.
Confucius was Premier of Wei. His disciple, Tzŭ-kao, was
the judge of a criminal court and once cut off the feet of a criminal. The
footless man became their gate-keeper. Some people slandered Confucius before
the Ruler of Wei, saying that Chung-ni was plotting a disturbance. Therefore,
the Ruler of Wei wanted to arrest Confucius. Confucius ran away. All his
disciples escaped. Tzŭ-kao went to the back
T`ien Tzŭ-fang went to Wey from Ch`i. He saw from a
distance Chieh Huang riding in the coach of a feudal lord with cavaliers around
and marching out in full dignity. Fang at first thought Marquis Wên was going
out, and
When Ch`in and Han were attacking Wey, Chao Mao went westward on
an itinerant tour and Ch`in and Han stopped the campaign. When Ch`i and Ching
were attacking Wey, Mao went eastward on an itinerant tour and Ch`i and Ching
stopped the campaign. Accordingly, King Hsiang of Wey supported him with the
emolument
Confucius said: "Who knows how to be an official, plants gratitude in the mind of the people; who does not know how to be an official plants resentment in the mind of the people. The strickle is for adjusting the measure. The official is for adjusting the law. Who governs a state should not lose sight of the means of adjustment."
Shao Shih-chou was a faithful, honest, clean, and earnest
According to a different source: Shao Shih-chou served as
aide-de-camp to Lord Hsiang. Upon their arrival at Chin-yang, a wrestler named
Niu Tzŭ contested with him in strength, but he could not win. Thereupon
Chou spoke to the Lord: "Your Highness made thy servant an
When Duke Huan of Ch`i was going to make Kuan Chung Uncle Chung,
he ordered the officials to the effect that as His Highness was going to make
Chung Kuan Uncle Chung, those in favour of the measure, after entering the
gate, keep to the left, and those against it, after entering the gate, keep to
the right. Tung-kou Ya kept standing in the centre of the gate. Thereupon Duke
Huan asked: "I am making
When Duke Wên went out into exile, Ch`i Chêng carried bowls of
food along and followed him. One day he lost his way and went astray from the
Duke. Hungry, he wept by the road. Sleeping off his starvation, he dared not
eat the food. After Duke Wên returned to his country, raised an army to attack
Yüan, vanquished it, and took it, Duke Wên said: "Who could easily endure the
hardship of hunger and would by all means keep the bowls of food perfect, is
certainly not going to rebel in Yüan." So saying he raised Chêng and appointed
him Governor of Yüan. Hearing about this, High Officer Hun Hsien disapproved
the policy and said: "Is it not tactless to expect Chêng not to rebel in Yüan
because he
Yang Hu, in discussing the attitude of minister towards ruler
said: "If the sovereign is worthy and enlightened, then exert all your mental
energy to serve him; if he is
Duke Ai of Lu once asked Confucius: "I have heard that there was
a one-legged
According to a different source: Duke Ai asked Confucius,
King Wên was attacking Ch`ung. When he arrived at the Yellow
Phoenix Mound,
According to a different source: Duke Wên was at war with the Chiu men. When he arrived at the Yellow Phoenix Hill, his shoe strings became loosened. Accordingly, he tied them up himself. "Could you not find anybody to do it for you?" asked the attendants. In reply the Duke said: "I have heard, `Everybody around the superior is respected by him; everybody around the ordinary ruler is loved by him; and everybody around the inferior ruler is despised by him.' Although Your Highness is unworthy, the late ruler's men are all here. So it is hard to have anybody tie my shoe strings."
Chi-sun was fond of entertaining scholars. All his life he lived
in a dignified manner. In his private dwelling and clothing he always kept the
same formality as in the court. Once he happened to neglect the formality and
commit some faults, and could not keep up the same dignity. In consequence his
guests thought he disliked and despised them, and
According to a different source
Confucius was attending on Duke Ai of Lu, when Duke Ai gave him
peaches and grains of glutinous millet. "Please help yourself," said Duke Ai.
Confucius ate the millet first and then the peaches. Thereat the attendants
all, covered their mouths with their hands, and laughed. "The grains are not
for eating," remarked Duke Ai, "but for wiping off
Viscount Chien of Chao once said to the Chamberlains: "The sheet inside the carriage is too beautiful. Indeed, the crown, however simple, is always put on the head; the shoes, however good, are always put on the feet. Now, the sheet inside the carriage is very beautiful. What shoes shall I wear? Indeed, to wear beautiful things below and simple things above is the origin of the violation of righteousness."
Fei Chung spoke to Chow: "The Earl of the West, Ch`ang, is
worthy. The hundred surnames like him. The feudal lords turn to him. He must be
censured. If not ousted, he will be a menace to the Yin Dynasty." "You are
speaking," said Chow, "of a righteous lord. Why should he be censured?" In
reply Fei Chung said: "The crown,
King Hsüan of Ch`i asked K`uang Ching: "Do the literati gamble?"
"No, they don't." "Why?" asked the King. In reply K`uang Ching said: "The
gamblers make much of the owl dice.
Chung-ni said, "Better let the people flatter the superior than
let them flatter the inferior".
Chü was a retired scholar in Ch`i; Ch`uan in Wey. The Rulers of
Ch`i and Wey were not enlightened and not able to penetrate into the actual
conditions within the boundaries, and both followed the words of the
attendants.
Hsi-mên, while Magistrate of Yeh, was clean and honest and had
no self-interest even as small as the tip of an autumn spikelet. He was,
however, very indifferent towards the courtiers. Therefore the courtiers joined
one another and together did him an ill turn. After one yeat of his term, he
handed in his report on local finance; then the Ruler took back his official
seal. Thereupon he presented to the Ruler his own petition saying: "Formerly
thy servant did not know how to be Magistrate of Yeh. Now that thy servant has
the right way, may he petition for the seal in order to govern Yeh again? If
his work is again not equal to the official duty, may Your Highness sentence
him to capital punishment with axe and anvil." Marquis Wên, unable to bear
dismissing him, gave him the post again. Pao, accordingly, imposed heavy taxes
upon the hundred surnames and began to bribe the
In Ch`i once the son of a dog-like thief
Tzŭ-ch`o said: "Nobody is able to draw a square with the left hand and a circle with the right hand at the same time."
Expel ants with meat! Then ants will multiply. Drive flies away with fish! Then flies will come nearer and nearer.
Once Duke Huan said to Kuan Chung: "Official posts are few, but
office-hunters are many. Over this I am worried." "If Your Highness grants the
attendants no request but awards men with emoluments only in accordance with
their abilities and gives men official posts only in correspondence
Viscount Hsüan of Han said: "My horses have had an abundance of
madder
Duke Huan asked Kuan Chung about the appointment of officials to
different posts. Kuan Chung said: "With reference to eloquence and penetration
in wording, honesty and integrity in money, and knowledge of human affairs, thy
servant is not as good as Hsien Shang. May Your Highness appoint him Supreme
Judge! With reference to the manners in ascending and descending steps and
courtesies shown to guests, thy servant is not as good as Hsi P`êng. May Your
Highness appoint him Supreme Usher. In matters of
Yü
According to a different source: Yü
Kuan Chung, on becoming Premier of Ch`i, said to Duke Huan, "Thy
servant is noble but poor." "You shall have the same wealth as the Building of
Three Returns,"
According to a different source: Uncle Kuan Chung on going out
would put red covers on his carriages and blue costumes on his attendants, and
on coming home would have drum music played. In his yard stood tripods. His
household has as much wealth as the Building of Three Returns. Therefore,
Confucius said: "A good official, indeed! But his extravagance is sufficient to
embarrass his superior. Sun-shu Ao, Premier of Ch`u, used a wooden cart pulled
by a mare and took coarse rice with vegetable soup and dried fish for his meal.
In winter he wore a lamb-skin coat and linen clothes in summer. His face always
had the look of hunger. A good official, indeed. But in this case his frugality
is sufficient to oppress his inferiors."
Yang Hu left Ch`i and found shelter in Chao. There Lord Chien
asked him, "I have heard that you are good in raising able men." "While in Lu,"
said Hu, "thy servant raised three men, all of whom became magistrates. After
Hu was found guilty in Lu, all of them searched after Hu. While living in Ch`i,
thy servant recommended three men: One became an attendant on the King; one
became a prefect; and the third became an official receiver of public guests.
After I was found guilty, the attendant refused to see me; the prefect intended
to arrest me on receiving me; and the
Chung-mou had no magistrate. Therefore Duke P`ing of Chin
Duke P`ing once asked Shu Hsiang, "Among the ministers, who is
the worthiest?" "Chao Wu," was the reply. "You side with your senior official,"
remarked the Duke. "No," said Hsiang, "Chao Wu, when standing up, looks
undignified even in his full dress, and, when speaking, seems unable to
Chieh Hu recommended his enemy to Lord Chien for premiership.
The enemy thought he had by good luck forgiven him, and so went purposely to
thank him.
According to a different source: Chieh Hu recommended Hsing Pai-liu to the governorship of Shang-tang. Liu went to thank him and said: "You have forgiven me my fault. How dare I not repeat bows to you?" In reply Hu said: "To raise you is a public matter; to hate you is a private affair. You had better go. My hatred for you remains the same as before."
One day a man from the Prefecture of Chêng was selling pigs.
When somebody asked him about the price, he said, "The way is still so long.
The sun is setting. How can I have time to talk with you?"
v. p.
155 n. 6).
Fan Wên-tzŭ was fond of speaking without reserve. His
father, Wu-tzŭ, whipped him with a stick and said
Tzŭ-ch`an was son of Tzŭ-kuo. Tzŭ-ch`an was
loyal to the Ruler of Chêng. Thereat Tzŭ-kuo was angry and reprimanded
him, saying: "To be sure, when you act sharply different from the rest of the
ministers and remain loyal to the sovereign by yourself, if the sovereign is
worthy and enlightened, he will listen to you; if he is not enlightened, he
will not listen to you. You cannot always foretell whether or not he is going
to listen to you. Yet you have estranged yourself from the rest of ministers.
If estranged from them, you
Liang Ch`ê was Magistrate of Yeh. One day his elder sister went
to see him. At dusk she arrived too late for the office hour. The gate was
shut.
Kuan Chung was arrested and brought from Lu to Ch`i. On the way
he was hungry and thirsty. When passing through I-wu, he begged the frontier
guard for food. The guard knelt down and presented the food to him with great
reverence.
The ways whereby the sovereign rules over the ministers
are three:—
I. If the sovereign finds his influence insufficient to transform
the ministers, then he should remove them. Musician K`uang in his reply and Yen
Tzŭ in his persuasion both discarded
Spring and Autumn Annals, "Who is skilful in maintaining his
position would nip an evil in the bud early enough." Thus, even Chi-sun
reprimanded Chung-ni for obstructing
II. The lord of men is an attractive
III. If tact does not work, there are always reasons for it. If
the wine merchant does not kill his fierce dog, his wine will become sour.
Similarly, the state has dogs. Moreover, all the attendants are like the rats
gnawing the shrine. Now,
So much above for the canons.
Not encouraged after being rewarded and honoured and not afraid after being punished and disgraced—in other words, not transformed after the four methods are applied— then such ministers must be removed.
Duke Ching of Ch`i went to Chin and was invited by Duke P`ing to
a carousal. Musician K`uang was in company with them. At the opening of the
feast, Duke Ching asked Musician K`uang about government, "What will Grand
Tutor teach me?" "Your Highness, be sure only to confer favours upon the
people," replied Musician K`uang. At the height of the feast, when
half-seas-over and about to leave, he again asked Musician K`uang about
government. "What will Grand Tutor teach me?" "Your Highness, be sure only to
confer favours upon the people," replied K`uang. When Duke Ching was leaving
for his lodge
Once Duke Ching and Yen Tzŭ travelled to the district of
Small Sea. They went up the Cypress-Bed Terrace.
ox, he takes only one plate of the beef and with the
rest feeds scholars and warriors.
chih is about eighteen feet.
It is said in The Book of
Poetry,
Now that for the virtue of T`ien Ch`êng the people
sing and dance,
The
Book of Poatry, Pt. II. Bk. VII, IV, 3, trans. by Legge.
Somebody said: "Duke Ching did not know how to make use of his
position while Musician K`uang and Yen Tzŭ did not know how to get rid of
troubles. To be sure if the hunter relies on the security of the carriage,
utilizes the legs of the six horses, and makes Wang Liang hold their reins,
then he will not tire himself and will find it easy to overtake swift
Tzŭ-hsia said: "Regicides and parricides as recorded in
the Spring and Autumn Annals number tens. Nine of them
was an outcome of one day's fermentation. It always grew from a bud and
developed into maturity. On the whole the wicked deeds, repeatedly committed,
become a pile. When the pile is mature, the urge to commit further villainy
becomes strong. When the urge is strong, it is liable to extend to murder.
Therefore, the enlightened sovereign uproots them early. Now the attempt of
T`ien Ch`êng to launch a rebellion could be seen budding, but the ruler
Chi-sun was Premier of Lu. Tzŭ-lu was Magistrate of Hou.
In the fifth month of the year the Lu State requisitioned a number of
able-bodied men to dig a long ditch. During the period of time Tzŭ-lu
made rice gruel with the grain out of his private emolument and fed the workmen
at the quarters of Wu-fu. Hearing about this, Confucius sent Tzŭ-kung
there to overturn the food, break the vessels, and tell him, "The Ruler of Lu
rules over the people. Why should you feed them?" Thereby, Tzŭ-lu,
changing his colour from anger bared his arms, went in, and said, "Master, do
you dislike Yu
Before Confucius had finished his speech, the messenger of
Chi-sun arrived, blamed Confucius, and said, "Fei
T`ai-kung Wang was enfeoffed eastward in Ch`i. By the eastern
sea of Ch`i there were retired scholars named
According to a different source: T`ai-kung Wang was enfeoffed
eastward in Ch`i. By the sea there was a worthy named K`uang-yü. Hearing of
him, T`ai-kung Wang went to ask for an interview with him. Thrice in front of
the gate he left his horse and walked on foot, but K`uang-yü never granted him
an interview. Therefore, T`ai-kung Wang censured him. At that time, Duke Tan of
Chou was in Lu and went on horseback to stop the execution. Upon his arrival
the execution had already been accomplished. "K`uang-yü was a worthy man," said
Duke Tan of Chou, "of All-under-Heaven. Why did you punish him, indeed?" In
reply T`ai-kung Wang said: "K`uang-yü
Ju-êrh once persuaded Duke Ssŭ of Wei of the way of
government. Duke Ssŭ was pleased with his persuasion but heaved deep
sighs. "Why does Your Highness not appoint him prime minister?" asked the
chamberlains. "Indeed, any horse that looks like a deer," replied the Duke,
"can be quoted at one thousand pieces of gold. However, there are horses each
worth one thousand
When Hsüeh Kung was premier to Marquis Chao of Wey, there were
twin brothers among the chamberlains, named Yang-hu and Pan-ch`i. Both were
highly regarded by the
To be sure the crow-tamer cuts off the lower feathers. Then the bird must depend upon him for food. How can it go wild? Indeed, the same is true when the enlightened sovereign wants to keep ministers under control. He must make the ministers always profit by the emoluments bestowed by the ruler and submit to the titles conferred by the superior. If they profit by the emoluments bestowed by the ruler and submit to the titles conferred by the superior, how can they remain disobedient?
Shên Tzŭ said: "If the superior's cleverness is visible,
people will guard against it; if his stupidity is visible, people will bewilder
him; if his knowledge is visible, people will disguise
According to a different source: Shên Tzŭ said: "Be
prudent in your speech, or people will accord
T`ien Tzŭ-fang asked T`ang I-chü, "Of what must the archer
with stringed arrows be cautious?" In reply I-chü said: "The bird sees you with
several hundred eyes,
According to a different source: King Hsüan of Ch`i asked T`ang
I Tzŭ about the art of shooting with stringed arrows, "What is most
essential to the art of shooting with stringed arrows?" "Carefulness about the
hiding-place," replied T`ang I Tzŭ. "What do you mean by `carefulness
about the hiding-place'?" asked the King. In reply I Tzŭ said: "The bird
sees man with tens of eyes, whereas man sees it with two eyes. How can man not
be careful about his hiding-place? Therefore, I say, `The essence of the art
lies in carefulness about the hiding place.' " "How is the rule over
All-under-Heaven," remarked the King, "different from this? Now, with two eyes
the lord of men sees the whole country, whereas the country sees the lord of
men with a myriad eyes. Then how can he make himself a
Kuo Yang was highly regarded by the ruler of Chêng. When he heard the Ruler disliked him, he accompanied him at a carousal and purposely said beforehand to the Ruler: "If thy servant happens to be so unlucky as to have committed certain faults, may Your Highness kindly permit thy servant to know them. Then thy servant will ask permission to reform himself in hope that he may evade capital punishment."
Once an itinerant spoke to King Hsüan of Han about the way of
government. King Hsüan was pleased with his theory and heaved deep sighs. On
the same day
When Lord Ching-kuo
According to a different source: Hsüeh Kung was Premier under
King Wei of Ch`i, when the royal consort died. There were then ten ladies
admired by the King. Among these Hsüeh Kung wanted to know the one whom the
King wanted in particular, so that he would ask the King to install that one as
the new consort. However, should the King listen to him, then his suggestion
would prevail upon the King and he would be highly regarded by the new consort;
should the King not listen to him, his persuasion must have been
When Kan Mu was premier to King Hui of Ch`in, King Hui liked
Kung-sun Yen. One day he spoke in private to him, "I am going to appoint you
prime minister." This was overheard through a hole in the wall by a subordinate
official of Kan Mu, and was reported to him. Meanwhile, Kan Mu went in to have
audience with the King and said, "As Your Majesty has found a worthy premier,
thy servant dares to repeat bows and offer his congratulations." "I have
According to a different source: Hsi-shou was a good general in
All-under-Heaven serving under the King of Liang-Wey. The King of Ch`in wanted
to get him and entrust him with the rule over All-under-Heaven. "Yen is a
minister," replied Hsi-shou, "and therefore dare not leave the country of his
ruler at any time." In the course of one year Hsi-shou displeased the King of
Liang-Wey and sought refuge in Ch`in. The King of Ch`in accorded him a very
cordial reception. Chu Li-chi, the then Commander of Ch`in's forces, fearing
lest Hsi-shou should replace him,
T`ang-ch`i Kung said to Marquis Chao, "Suppose there is a jade
cup worth one thousand pieces of gold, but it has no bottom. Can it be used in
serving water?" "No," replied Marquis Chao. "Then suppose there is an earthen
pot which does not leak. Can it be used in serving wine?" "Yes," replied
Marquis Chao. Thereupon Chi Kung said: "Indeed, the
According to a different source: T`ang-chi Kung had an interview with Marquis Chao and said: "Suppose there are a white jade cup with no bottom and a pottery one with a bottom. When thirsty, which will Your Highness use for drinking?" "The pottery one of course," replied the Marquis. "The white jade cup is beautiful," said T`ang chi-kung, "but Your Highness will not drink from it. Is it because it has no bottom?" "Yes," replied the Ruler. Then T`ang Chi-kung said: "The lord of men who divulges the words of ministers, is comparable to the jade cup with no bottom." Thenceforth, every time after T`ang Chi-kung had an audience and went out, Marquis Chao would always lie by himself simply for fear lest he should talk in his sleep and divulge the conversation to his consorts.
Shên Tzŭ said: "Who sees things by himself, is called
clear-sighted; who hears things by himself is called acute;
Once there was a Sung man selling wine. His measures were very
fair. His reception of customers was very courteous. The wine he made was
excellent. He hoisted his banner
Similarly, Duke Huan asked Kuan Chung what was the greatest
menace to the government of a state. "The greatest menace is the shrine rats,"
was the reply. "Why should we worry so much about the shrine rats?" asked the
Duke. Then Kuan Chung replied: "Your Highness must have seen people building a
shrine. They set up the beams and then plaster them. Yet rats gnaw holes
through the plaster and
Indeed, when chief vassals have become fierce dogs and would bite upholders of the true path, and when the courtiers have turned into shrine rats and would spy out the ruler's secrets, if the lord of men takes no notice of the impending danger, how can he avoid delusion and how can the state evade ruin?
According to a different source: Among the wine
According to another different source: Duke Huan asked Kuan
Chung, "What was the chief menace to the
Similarly, ministers who have the grip on state affairs and
issue prohibitions at their pleasure, always giving advantages to those doing
them good and causing injuries to those not doing them any good, are fierce
dogs, too. Therefore, if the courtiers become shrine rats and the
administrators of state
When Yao wanted to transfer the rule over
According to a different source: Chung-ni said, "Not to ruin the result of observation with the object of suspicion is difficult."
King Chuang of Ching once issued the law of the inner gate
According to a different source: Once upon a time the King of
Ch`u sent urgently for the Crown Prince. The law of the Ch`u State allowed no
carriage to reach the inner gate of the palace. It was raining. There were
puddles in the courtyard. Therefore, the Crown Prince had to take his carriage
as far as the inner gate. "No carriage is allowed," shouted the court guard,
"to reach the inner gate. To take any carriage as far as the inner gate
Duke Ssŭ
ch`ing is one hundred mou. One mou is a Chinese acre; one
English acre is about 6.6 mou.
According to a different source: The Ruler of Wei was going to
Chin and said to Po Yi: "I want you to go along with me." "Mother is at home.
May I go home and consult with her about the matter?" Thereupon the Ruler of
Wei went himself to ask permission. "Yi is a subject," said Mother Po, "to Your
Highness. It is very kind of you to take him along." Then the Ruler said to Po
Yi: "I already
Indeed, the teacher of singing first teaches the pupil vocal
gestures and different pitches. After the pupil becomes
According to a different source: The teacher of singing, first
of all, conforms the pupil's voice to certain rules. When singing
staccato,
legato,
staccato is not set
with guttural sounds and his legato not with lingual
sounds, then he is not teachable.
Wu Ch`i was a native of Tso-shih in Wei. Once he asked his wife
to weave a silk band. When finished, the band was too narrow for the regular
width. So he asked her to weave a new one. "All right," said his wife. When
finished, it was measured as before but fell short of the regular width, too.
At this Wu Ch`i was very angry. In response his wife said: "After I had set in
the warp, I could not change the width any more." Wu Ch`i divorced her. Then
his wife asked her
According to a different source: Wu Ch'i showed his wife a silk
band and said to her: "Will you weave for me a silk band exactly like this
one?" When the band was woven, he tried
Duke Wên of Chin once asked Hu Yen: "If your
On the following day Duke Wên issued an order: A
Perceiving his ability to make the people go to war, Duke Wên raised an army, attacked Yüan, and took it. Attacking Wei, he made their field-ridges run eastward and thereby facilitate his military operations. He took Five Deer, attacked Yang, and defeated Kuo. Then he attacked Ts`ao and marched southward to besiege Chêng and upset the city walls. Then he raised the siege of Sung and fought with the Chings at Ch`êng-p`u and put them to rout. Turning homeward, he took an oath at Foot-Earth, and finally accomplished at Hêng-yung the righteousness of honouring the House of Chou. Thus, in an expedition he completed eight achievements. As to why he was so successful, there was no other reason than this, that he followed the counsel of Hu Yen and made use of the back of Tien Chieh.
Indeed the pain of the boil, unless the bone and marrow are
pierced, the worried mind will no longer be able to bear. If the bone and
marrow are not pierced, nobody can use the half-inch stone-needle to cut the
boil open. The same is true with the lord of men in government. Unless he knows
hardship, he cannot have peace. If he wants to govern his country, unless he
experiences the pain, he will not be able to listen to the holy and the
intelligent and remove the rebellious ministers. Rebellious ministers are
always powerful men. Powerful men are always very near and dear to the lord of
men. The
II. Order and strength are due to the law; weakness and disorder,
to its crookedness. If the ruler understands this principle, he must rectify
reward and punishment but never assume humanity towards his inferiors. Rank and
III. If the lord of men takes no interest in foreign affairs, then
itinerants from abroad are bound to be successful. For instance, Su Tai
reproved the King of Ch`i before the King of Yen. If the lord of men takes
interest
IV. The lord of men abides by the law and calls actual results to
account in order thereby to perform his great achievement. We hear about people
who behave well by themselves despite the dissipation of the magistrate; but we
never hear about any magistrate who governs himself well but has rebellious
people. Therefore, the enlightened sovereign governs the magistrates but never
directly governs the people. The basis of this argument is found in shaking the
tree by its root and drawing the net by its rope.
V. If you follow the right course of a task, you will accomplish
it without hard work. For this reason, Tzŭ Chêng sat on the shaft and
sang and thereby went across the arch of a bridge. The contrary is instanced by
the tax collector asking Lord Chien of Chao about the increase and decrease in
taxation and by Po Yi speaking about the satiation of the stomach of the
country. In this remark Lord Chien rejoiced, but the public treasury was
running empty; the hundred surnames were starving, but the officials were
wealthy. For further illustration, Duke Huan inspected the real situation of
the people, so that Kuan Chung used up the surplus money in the treasury and
sent away the resentful girls from the court. Action contrary to the principle
is instanced by Cho Tzŭ of Yen-ling who could not advance
So much above for the canons.
Tsao-fu managed four horses, drove them as fast as possible,
turned them around everywhere, and thus moved in any direction as he pleased.
He could manage the horses in the way he pleased, because he handled the reins
and the whip at his will. However, when horses were frightened by the jumping
pig, Tsao-fu lost control of them, not because the severity of the reins and
the whip became insufficient, but because his authority over the horses was
shaken by the jumping pig. Prince Yü-Ch`i harnessed extra horses
For the same reason, though Wang Liang and Tsao-fu were skilful
drivers in All-under-Heaven, if you let Wang Liang hold the left rein and
thunder the horse onward and let Tsai-fu hold the right rein and whip it on,
the horse will not be able to go even ten li, because they held the reins of
the same horse together. Likewise, though T`ien Lien and Ch`êng Chiao were
skilful players of the lute in
According to a different source: Tsao-fu served as assistant charioteer to the King of Ch`i. Once, when he thought his work in training the horses to bear thirst was complete he drove the chariot to the garden. As soon as the thirsty horses sw the garden pool they broke away from the chariot and ran to the pool, so that the harness was broken to pieces.
As regards Prince Yü-ch`i, he on behalf of Lord Chien of Chao shaped his course to race for a goal one thousand li away. When he started, a pig hid itself in a ditch. As he got the reins and the whip ready and began to make a rush for the goal, the pig all of a sudden jumped out from the ditch. Thereby the horse was frightened, and the harness was broken to pieces.
Tzŭ-han, Garrison Commander of the Capital, said to the
Ruler of Sung: "Reward and bestowal are welcomed by the people. May Your
Highness confer them! Execution and punishment are disliked by the people. May
thy servant beg to perform them?" "All right," replied the Ruler of Sung.
Thenceforth, on issuing important ordinances and on censuring chief vassals, he
always said: "Ask Tzŭ-han to give a decision!" Thereupon, chief vassals
became afraid
Duke Chien from his supreme status inflicted heavy
According to a different source: Tsao-fu served as assistant
charioteer to the King of Ch`i and trained the horses to bear thirst. In one
hundred days the training was complete.
According to a different source: Prince Yü-ch`i on
According to a different source: Ssŭ-ch`êng Tzŭ-han
said to the Ruler of Sung: "Reward and bestowal are welcomed by the people. May
Your Highness confer them personally! Punishment and execution are disliked by
them. May thy servant beg to take charge of them?" Thenceforth, on executing
crooked people or on censuring chief vassals, the Ruler always said, "Ask
Tzŭ-han to give decision!" In the course of one year, the people knew the
order to kill was issued by Tzŭ-han. In consequence, the whole country
turned to him. In the long run, Tzŭ-han intimidated the Ruler of Sung and
usurped his reins of government. Hence the saying: "Tzŭ-han acted like
the jumping pig; T`ien Hêng
King Chao of Ch`in was ill. The hundred surnames in every hamlet
bought an ox and every family prayed for the King's earliest recovery. When
Kung-sun Shu went out, he saw it. Therefore, he went in to congratulate the
King and said, "The hundred surnames in every village bought an ox to pray for
Your Majesty's earliest recovery." The King, accordingly, sent men out to
inquire into the matter, and found it true. Therefore, the King said: "Make the
people of every village pay a fine
According to a different source: King Hsiang of Ch`in was ill.
The hundred surnames prayed for his earliest recovery. When he was perfectly
recovered from illness, they killed oxen as sacrifices to thank the gods. When
courtier Yen O and Kung-sun Yen went out, they saw it and said, "This is
Once, when Ch`in had a great famine, Marquis Ying
According to a different source, the King said: "If I order the
fruits of grass, vegetables, dates, and chestnuts in the Five Parks to be given
out to the people, these may be
T`ien Yu taught his son, T`ien Chang, and said: "If you want to benefit yourself, benefit your ruler first; if you want to benefit your family, benefit your country first."
According to a different source: T`ien Yu taught his son, T`ien Chang, and said: "The sovereign offers ranks and offices; the minister offers wisdom and strength. Hence the saying `Rely on nobody but yourself!' "
Kung-yi Hsiu, Premier of Lu, was fond of fish. Therefore, people
in the whole country contentiously bought fish, which they presented to him.
However, Kung-yi Tzŭ would not accept the presents. Against such a step
his younger brother remonstrated with him and said: "You like fish, indeed. Why
don't you accept the present of fish?" In reply he said: "It is solely because
I like fish that I would not accept the fish they gave me. Indeed, if I accept
the fish, I will be placed under an obligation to them. Once placed under an
obligation to them, I will sometime have to bend the law. If I bend the law, I
will be dismissed from the premiership. After being dismissed from the
premiership, I might not be able to supply myself with fish. On the contrary,
if I do not accept the fish from them and am not dismissed the
Tzŭ-chih, Premier of Yen, was influential and in charge of all governmental decisions. Once Su Tai representing Ch`i went to Yen, where the King asked him, "What kind of a ruler is the King of Ch`i?" "He will never attain Hegemony," was the reply. "For what reason?" asked the King of Yen. "When Duke Huan was Hegemonic Ruler," replied Tai, "he entrusted Pao Shu with home affairs and Kuan Chung with foreign affairs while he himself left his hair uncombed, enjoyed drives with women, and every day strolled down-town. The present King of Ch`i, however, put no trust in his chief vassals." Thereafter, the King of Yen increased his confidence in Tzu-chih accordingly. Hearing about this, Tzu-chih sent men to present Su Tai one hundred ih of gold and let him use it at his pleasure.
According to a different source: Su Tai went to Yen as envoy
from Ch`in. Perceiving that unless he could benefit Tzŭ-chih, he would
have to go homeward without
P`an Shou said to the King of Yen: "Your Majesty had better
transfer the state to Tzŭ-chih. People have called Yao worthy because he
transferred the rule over
According to a different source: P`an Shou was a retired
According to another different source: When the King of Yen
wanted to alienate the state to Tzŭ-chih, he asked P`an Shou about the
measure. In reply P`an Shou said: "Yü loved Ih and entrusted him with
All-under-Heaven. Later, he appointed followers of Ch`i officials. In his old
age, he considered Ch`i unfit to rule over All-under-Heaven and therefore
alienated All-under-Heaven from Ih; while all posts and powers were held in the
hands of Ch`i. Later,
Fang Wu Tzŭ said: "I have heard that according to the etiquette of antiquity no ruler should take the same carriage with any wearer of the same kind of clothes or share the same house with any kin. How much less should he allow any minister to exercise his ruling authority and dislocate his august position?"
Wu Chang said to King Hsüan of Han: "The lord of men should not
pretentiously love anybody; for, if he does one day, he will not be able to
hate him again. Nor should he pretentiously hate anybody; or, if he does one
day, he will not be able to love him again. Therefore, if the signs of
pretentious hatred and pretentious love
One day the King of Chao took a walk in the Royal Garden. When
the attendants were going to give rabbits to the tiger, he stopped to look at
the tiger. The tiger angrily strained its eyes round and round. "How awful the
tiger's eyes are!" remarked the King. "The eyes of Lord
Once the Ruler of Wei was paying a visit to the court of Chou.
The official usher of Chou asked his pen-name. "The Feudal Lord of Wei,
If someone wants to move a tree and pulls each leaf, he works
hard but cannot shake the whole tree. If he holds the root from the right and
the left, then all the leaves will be shaken. If you shake the tree by the
pool, then the birds will
In the case of the fire brigade, if the captain carries water in jars and pots and runs to the fire, he will perform the function of only one man; whereas if he takes a whip in hand and thereby gives directions to the workmen, then he will rule over a myriad of men. For this reason, the sage does not look after the trifles of the people and the enlightened sovereign does not attend to small affairs.
One day, when Tsao-fu was picking weeds in the field, there
passed by him father and son riding in a carriage. The horses were frightened
and refused to go any farther. The son alighted from the carriage and pulled
the horses. The father
Iron hammers are for flattening metallic plates. Wooden stands are for collecting crooked arrows. The sage makes laws in order thereby to flatten the indented and correct the crooked.
When Cho Ch`ih was serving Ch`i he pulled the sinews out of King Min's body. When Li Tai was serving Chao, he starved the Father Sovereign to death. These two rulers were both unable to use their iron hammers and wooden stands with the result that they were put to death and became the laughing-stock of All-under-Heaven.
According to a different source: After entering Ch`i one would
hear of Cho Ch`ih only and never hear of the King of Ch`i; after entering Chao
one would hear of Li Tai only and never hear of the King of Chao. Hence the
saying: "If the lord of men does not apply tact, his prestige and position will
become insignificant and ministers will celebrate
According to another different source: When T`ien Ying was
Premier of Ch`i, somebody said to the King of Ch`i: "If Your Majesty does not
spend a few days in listening to the annual financial reports personally, then
Your Majesty
According to a different source: King Wu-ling entrusted King Hui-wên with the state affairs, and appointed Li Tai premier. As King Wu-ling did not hold the power of life and death over the people himself, he was eventually intimidated by Li Tai.
Tzŭ Chêng was pulling a push-cart to go across the arch of
a bridge, but was unable to bear the weight. So he sat on the shaft and started
singing. Meanwhile the passers-by from the front stopped and those from the
rear ran forward to help
When Lord Chien of Chao was sending tax-collectors out, they
asked him about the rate of taxation. Thereupon Lord Chien said: "Neither too
high nor too low. If too high, it will profit the superior. If too low, it will
profit the people. The magistrates who seek no private profit, are honest . .
."
Once Po Yi said to Lord Chien of Chao: "The stomach of the country of your Highness is well satiated." Rejoicing in such a remark, Lord Chien gladly asked, "In what way?" In reply Yi said: "On the top the treasury and the granary are empty and running low; at the bottom the hundred surnames are poor and starving; whereas in the centre the crooked officials are wealthy."
Once Duke Huan went out in disguise and inspected the domestic
conditions of the people. There was an aged man in a house supporting himself.
So Duke Huan asked him why he was left alone. In reply the man said: "Thy
servant has three sons. The whole family being poor, I have been unable to find
wives for them. They are in the employ of other people and have not yet come
back." Upon his return to the court, Duke Huan related this situation to Kuan
Chung. Kuan Chung said: "If the public treasury has a surplus amount of money,
the people must be suffering hunger and starvation. If the court has
discontented girls, many men must
According to a different source: Once Duke Huan went out in disguise among the people. There was an old man named Lu Mên-chi. He had lived seventy years and had no wife. Therefore, Duke Huan asked Kuan Chung, "Is there anyone among the people who has lived up to old age and had no wife?" "There is a man," replied Kuan Chung, "named Lu Mên-chi who has lived seventy years and had no wife." "Then how can we make every man have a wife?" asked Duke Huan. "Thy servant has heard," replied Kuan Chung, "if the sovereign has money saved, the subjects must be suffering destitution. If the court has discontented girls, there must be men who live up to old age and have no wives." "Right," said Duke Huan. Then he ordered the court to give in marriage those girls who had never attended on the Ruler, and also ordered men to start housekeeping at twenty and women to get married at fifteen. In consequence, there were no discontented girls inside the court and no wifeless men outside.
Cho Tzŭ of Yen-ling rode in a carriage pulled by a team of
blue-haired horses with the herring-bone design.
According to a different source: Cho Tzŭ of Yen-ling rode
in a carriage pulled by a team of blue-haired horses with the herring-bone
design. They were equipped with
When Duke Wên of Chin was about to fight the Ch`u
forces, he summoned Uncle Fan
Some critic
Once upon a time, farmers of the Li Mountains trespassed on each
other's fields. Thereupon Shun went there and tilled among them. In the course
of one year, all the boundary ridges of the fields became correct. Another time
fishermen living by the Yellow River disputed about small shoals. Thereupon
Shun went there and fished among them. In the course of one year they came to
make concessions to elders. The potters in the Eastern Barbaric Land made very
poor earthenware. Thereupon Shun went there and made
Somebody asked the literati, "At that time where was Yao?" "Yao
was then the Son of Heaven," they replied. "If so, why did Chung-ni regard Yao
as saintly? The saintly man, being clear-sighted and seated on the throne, was
supposed to purge All-under-Heaven from wickedness, make
Once there was a man of Ch`u selling shields and halberds. In
praising his shields he said, "My shields are so solid that nothing can
penetrate them." Again, in praising his halberds, he said, "My halberds are so
sharp that they can penetrate anything." In response to his words somebody
asked, "How about using your halberds to pierce through your shields?" To this
the man could not give any reply. Indeed, v. infra,
Work XL, p. 203.
Moreover, in saving the fallen, Shun stopped one fault in a year
and three faults in three years. The length of Shun's
Furthermore, to experience hardships personally and thereby
transform the people afterwards was difficult even for Yao and Shun; whereas to
make use of one's august position and thereby correct
When Kuan Chung was ill, Duke Huan called on him and asked, "Uncle
Chung is now ill. Should he unfortunately pass away by the decree of fate, what
advice will he chef of Your
Highness, because Your Highness had never tasted human flesh, he purposely
steamed his son's head and served it.
v. Work
VII, p. 50, and Work X, p. 89.
Some critic says: What Kuan Chung suggested to Duke Huan was not what an upholder of legal standards ought to have said. His reason for suggesting the removal of Shu Tiao and Yi Ya was that in order to meet the demands of their master they stopped loving themselves. "If they did not love themselves," said he, "how could they love their master?" If so, then ministers who exert their strength to death for the sake of their sovereign, Kuan Chung would never take into service, saying, "If they did not love their lives and physical forces, how could they love their master?" This means that he wanted the ruler to remove loyal ministers. Moreover, if you infer their not loving their master from their not loving themselves, you will also infer Kuan Chung's inability to die for the sake of Duke Huan from his inability to die for the sake of Prince Chiu. This means that Kuan Chung himself also fell under the rule of removal.
The way of the enlightened sovereign is not the same, however. He
establishes what the people want and thereby gets meritorious services from
them, wherefore he bestows
Furthermore, that Duke Huan died and worms crawled outdoors while
the corpse lay unburied, was because his ministers were too powerful. The
ministers being
According to the way of the enlightened sovereign, nobody can hold
any additional office; no office involves any extra duty; the low and humble do
not have to depend upon the favour of the high and noble for distinction
Viscount Hsiang stood a long siege in Chin-yang. After the siege
was raised he rewarded five men for their
Some critic says: Chung-ni did not know the right way of rewarding
people. Indeed, if the superior knows the right way of rewarding and punishing
people, all officials dare not override their commissions; no minister dares to
break etiquette; the superior enacts the law; and the subjects have no crooked
mind. Were this the case, he could be considered skilful in rewarding and
punishing people. Suppose while Viscount Hsiang was in Chin-yang his orders
took no effect and his prohibitions stopped nothing. This would mean that
Viscount Hsiang had no country and Chin-yang had no ruler. Then with whom could
he defend the city? Now, while Viscount Hsiang was besieged in Chin-yang,
though the Chih Clan inundated the city till frogs made their nests inside the
mortars and ovens, yet the people had no rebellious mind. Thus were ruler and
minister attached to each other. Notwithstanding that Viscount Hsiang enjoyed
the intimate relationship between ruler and minister and that he had the legal
authority of issuing effective orders and enforcible prohibitions, if there
still remained arrogant ministers, it must have been because he missed the
right way of punishing people. If ministers render meritorious services in the
hour of need, they deserve reward. Now that solely because Ho had never been
arrogant, Viscount Hsiang rewarded him, he
Once Duke P`ing of Chin held a carousal with the body of
officials. When half-seas-over, he heaved a sigh and said, "Nothing is more
pleasant to the ruler of men than the obedience of his lords." In response to
this, Musician K`uang, seated in the front, raised the harp and threw it at the
Duke. Immediately the Duke spread out the lapel in front of his coat and
avoided it. The harp made a hole in the wall. Then the Duke said, "Whom did the
Grand Tutor intend to strike?" "Just now," replied the Musician K`uang, "some
small man by my side played upon words. Therefore, I threw the harp at him."
"It was I," said the Duke. "Alas!" exclaimed Musician K`uang. "It was not what
the ruler of men should have said." The attendants asked permission to plaster
Some critic says: Duke P`ing missed the way of the ruler: Musician
K`uang broke the ministerial etiquette. Indeed, to censure the person when
disapproving his action is the ruler's measure against the minister. To address
a memorial when
At the time of Duke Huan of Ch`i there was a private scholar named
Hsiao-ch`ên Chi. Duke Huan paid him three visits but could not see him. Then
Duke Huan said: "I have heard, `The commoner, unless he makes light of rank and
Some critic says: Duke Huan did not know benevolence and
righteousness. Indeed, who is benevolent and righteous worries about the evil
of All-under-Heaven and rushes at the calamity of the whole country regardless
of his personal humility and disgrace, is called benevolent and righteous. For
example Yi Yin regarded the Central States as disorderly and therefore became a
cook in order thereby to ingratiate
v.
infra, p. 306, f.3).
At the battle of Mt. Mi-chi, when Han Hsien-Tzŭ was about to
execute a man, Ch`i Hsien-tzŭ went in a carriage to save the man. Upon
his arrival the man had already been executed. Ch`i Tzŭ, accordingly,
said, "Why is the execution
Some critic says: Ch`i Tzŭ's saying must be carefully
scrutinized. Were the man executed by Han Tzŭ guilty, then he could not
be saved. Saving the criminal would break the law. Should the law be broken,
the country would fall into confusion. If the victim was not guilty, then Ch`i
Tzŭ should not have advised
After Duke Huan had untied the bonds of Kuan Chung and appointed
him premier, Kuan Chung said: "Thy servant has enough favour, but is low in
rank." "I will raise you above the Kaos and Kuos," said the Duke.
v. supra,
Work XXXIII, p. 80.
Some critic says: Now suppose bondmen and bondwomen by the ruler's
order summon nobles and ministers. Then nobody dares to disobey them. Not that
the nobles and ministers are low in rank and the bondmen and bondwomen are
high, but that nobody dares to disobey the sovereign's decree. Now, suppose
Kuan Chung's government did not rely on Duke Huan's authority. Then it would
have no sovereign. Without a sovereign, no country could by any means be
governed. If he acted under Duke Huan's authority and issued decrees in his
name, he could be trusted as the bondmen and bondwomen were. Why was it
necessary for him to have the rank of the Kaos and the Kuos and the title of
Uncle Chung before he enforced his rule over the country? The petty officials
and local magistrates of the present age, on enforcing the orders of their
superiors, neither except the high and noble nor apply them to the low and
humble only. As long as the enforcement is legal, even business eunuchs in the
court would be trusted by nobles and ministers. If the enforcement is illegal,
even high officials would have to give way to ignorant people. Now that Kuan
Chung, instead of striving to elevate the prestige of the sovereign and clarify
the law, simply attended to the increase of personal favour and the promotion
of his rank, if he was not covetous of wealth and nobility he must have been
stupid and ignorant of the right tact. Hence the saying:
King Hsüan of Han asked Chiu Liu, "I want to employ both Kung-chung and Kung-shu simultaneously. Is it practicable?" In reply Chiu Liu said: "Formerly Wey employed both Lou Yüan and Chieh Huang and, as a result, lost the Western River. Likewise, Ch`u employed both the Chaos and the Chings and, as a result, lost the districts of Yen and Ying. Now, if Your Majesty employs both Kung-chung and Kung-shu, both will certainly dispute about affairs and cultivate private friendships with foreign countries. Then the state will, doubtless, have worries."
Some critic says: Of old, Duke Huan of Ch`i employed both Kuan
Chung and Pao Shu while King T`ang, the
Duke Ching passed by the house of Yen Tzŭ and
said, "Your residence is small and close by the market. Pray move your home to
the Garden of Yü-chang." Repeating his bows, Yen Tzŭ declined the offer,
saying, "The home of thy servant
Some critic says: Yen Tzŭ's making dear the shoes of
Once Duke Huan of Ch`i was drunk and dropped his crown. Feeling
disgraced thereby, he did not hold court for three days. Kuan Chung said, "This
is not what the ruler of a state should feel disgraced by. Why does Your
Highness
Some critic says: Kuan Chung wiped away Duke Huan's disgrace among
small men but displayed his disgrace before superior men.
In bygone days, King Wên invaded Yü, defeated Chü, and took Fêng. After he had waged these three campaigns, King Chow came to dislike him. Afraid thereof, he offered to present the King with the land to the west of the Lo River and the country of the Red Soil, altogether one thousand li square in area, and asked him to abolish the punishment of climbing the roasting pillar. Thereat All-under-Heaven were delighted. Hearing about this, Chung-ni said: "How benevolent King Wên was! By making light of a country of one thousand li square, he asked for the abolishment of the punishment of climbing the roasting pillar. How wise King Wên was! By offering the land of one thousand li square, he won the hearts of All-under-Heaven."
Some critic says: Chung-ni thought King Wên was wise. Was he not
mistaken? Indeed, the wise man knows the unlucky and dangerous zone and can
avoid it, so that he never suffers the calamity himself. Suppose the reason why
King Wên was disliked by Chow was his inability to win the hearts of the
people. Then though he might seek to win the hearts of the people in order
thereby to dispel Chow's dislike, yet Chow would dislike him the more because
he made a great success in winning the hearts of the people. Besides, he made
light of his territory and thereby won the hearts of the people, which would
double Chow's suspicion of him. No wonder, he was fettered in jail at Yu-li.
The saying of the elder of Chêng, "Have personal experience of the Way of
Nature, do not do anything, and reveal nothing," would be the most suitable
warning to King Wên. It is the way to incur nobody's
Duke P`ing of Chin asked Shu Hsiang, saying: "
Some critic says: The replies of both Shu Hsiang and Musician
K`uang were equally eccentric views. Verily, to bring All-under-Heaven under
one rule and call nine
Formerly, Duke Huan built two markets inside the palace and two
hundred gates of harems between them. Everyday he wore no hat and took drives
with women. After he got Kuan Chung, he became the first of the Five Hegemonic
Rulers.
At the time of Duke Huan of Ch`i, once an envoy from Chin arrived. When the chief usher asked about the kind of treatment he should be accorded, Duke Huan thrice said, "Ask Uncle Chung about it." Therefore the clown laughed, saying, "How easy it is to be a ruler! First Your Highness says, `Ask Uncle Chung!' and next also says, `Ask Uncle Chung!' " In response Duke Huan said: "I have heard that the ruler of men has a hard time to find right men for office but has an easy time when making use of them. I already had a hard time to find Uncle Chung. After having found him, why should I not have an easy time?"
Some critic says: The reply of Duke Huan to the clown was not what
the ruler of men ought to have made. Duke Huan thought the ruler of men must
undergo the hardship of finding right men for office. Why should finding men be
a hardship at all? Yi Yin became a cook and thereby
Likewise, personnel administration is not an easy thing. The lord of men, while using men, must regulate them with rules and measures, and compare their deeds with their words in the way forms are compared with names. If any project is lawful, it should be carried out; if unlawful, it should be stopped. If the result is equivalent to the proposal, the proposer should be rewarded; if not, he should be punished. Rectify the ministers with forms and names, regulate the subordinates with rules and measures. This principle should not be neglected. Then what ease does the ruler of men have?
Thus finding men is not a hardship; using men is not easy.
Consequently, Duke Huan's saying, "The ruler has a hard time to find men but
has an easy time when using them," was not true. Moreover, Duke Huan went
through no hardship to find Kuan Chung. Kuan Chung did not die in the cause of
loyalty to his first master, but surrendered himself to Duke Huan. Besides, Pao
Shu made light of his own official position, gave way to the able man, and
After having found Kuan Chung, how could he have an easy time all
at once? Kuan Chung was not like Duke T`an of Chou. Duke T`an of Chou acted for
the Son of Heaven for seven years till King Ch`êng reached full age, when he
returned the reins of government to him. This was not because he thought of the
welfare of All-under-Heaven, but because he wanted to perform his duty. Indeed,
who does not usurp the orphan's throne and thereby rule over All-under-Heaven,
never will desert the dead ruler and serve the enemy; who deserts the dead
ruler and serves the enemy, will not always hesitate to usurp the orphan's
throne and thereby rule over All-under-Heaven; and who does not hesitate to
usurp the orphan's throne and thereby rule over All-under-Heaven, will not
hesitate to usurp the ruler's state. Now Kuan Chung was originally a minister
under Prince Chiu. Once he even schemed to assassinate Duke Huan, but in vain.
Following the death of his old master, he served Duke Huan. Clearly enough, in
matters of submission and desertion Kuan Chung was not as great as Duke T`an of
Chou.
Thus clearly
Li K`o
v. supra, Work XXXIII, p. 68).
Some critic says: Li Tzŭ proclaimed the theory, "Speeches,
eloquent and delightful to the ear but in discord with the cause of
righteousness, are called `attractive words'." To be sure, the eloquence of
speeches depends upon the speaker while their delight rests with the listener.
Thus, the speaker is not the listener. What he called "discord with the cause
of righteousness" is not concerned with the listener. It must be concerned with
what is heard. The listener must be either a rascal or a gentleman. The rascal,
having no cause of righteousness, must be unable to
The argument that a revenue enormous in amount is an attractive
income is not applicable to many cases. Li Tzŭ did not stop corruptions
early enough and let them creep into
When Viscount Chien of Chao was laying siege to the outer walls
Some critic says: The herald did not speak to the point. He simply
reminded his master that Duke Hui on account of his personnel administration
failed while Duke Wên on account of his personnel administration attained
hegemony, but did not yet explain to him the right technique of personnel
administration. Therefore, Duke Chien should not have discarded the shield and
the turret so soon. When the father is besieged, to slight personal safety and
venture the
Duke Mu of Lu once asked Tzŭ-ssŭ, saying, "I
have heard that the son of the Chien family in the village of P`ang
Some critic says: Was it unreasonable that the ruling family of Lu
was menaced by the Chi Clan successively for three generations? The enlightened
ruler searches for good men and rewards them. He searches for wicked men and
punishes them. He search is one. Therefore, who reports of good men agrees with
the superior on the approval of good deeds; who reports of wicked men agrees
with the superior on the dislike of bad deeds. Both equally deserve reward and
When Duke Wên fled into exile, Duke Hsien sent eunuch, P`i, to
assault him at Rush City. P`i only succeeded in cutting a sleeve off his coat.
Then Duke Wên escaped to Chieh. When Duke Hui ascended the throne, he also sent
P`i to assault Duke Wên by the side of the Wei River.
Some critic says: That festivals to the memory of the ancestors of
the Ch`is and the Chins were finally stopped, was perfectly reasonable. Duke
Huan could make use of Kuan Chung's meritorious services and forgot the grudge
against the shooting of the ribbon-hook. Duke Wên could listen to the eunuch's
saying and ignored the crime of cutting off his sleeve. Thus, Dukes Huan and
Wên could tolerate the two men. Rulers of subsequent generations, however, were
not as enlightened as these two Dukes while ministers of subsequent generations
were not as worthy as these two men. When disloyal ministers were serving
unintelligent rulers, if the rulers did not notice their disloyalty, then there
would appear such traitors as Ts`ao
Once somebody put a riddle to Duke Huan, saying, "The first difficulty, the second difficulty, and the third difficulty. What are they?" Unable to solve the riddle, Duke Huan asked Kuan Chung to do it. In reply Kuan Chung said, "The first difficulty is due to the ruler's intimacy with actors and remoteness from scholars and warriors; the second, due to his absence from the state capital and frequent visit to the seaside; and the third, due to the choice of the Crown Prince late in the ruler's old age." "Right," remarked Duke Huan. Without choosing a lucky day, he celebrated in the ancestral shrine the installation of the Crown Prince.
Some critic says: Kuan Chung's solution of the riddle was not to
the point. The serviceability of the scholars and warriors does not rest with
their distance from the ruler. Actors and clowns are from the beginning
supposed to accompany the lord of men at every feast. If so, then to keep
actors near and the scholars and warriors far and thereby maintain political
order would not be any difficulty at all. Again, who is in the position and not
able to make the best use of his authorities but counts on his constant
presence at the state capital, means to suppress wickedness throughout
v. supra, p. 19).v. supra, p. 4).
When the Duke of Sheh, Tzŭ-kao, asked Chung-ni about
government, Chung-ni said, "The way of good government is to content the near
and attract the distant."
Cf. Confucian
Analects, Bk. XIII, Ch. XVI, 2, Legge's trans.
Some critic says: The reply of Chung-ni was a
v. Lao
Tzŭ's Tao-Teh-Ching, Ch. LXIII, 3, trans. by
Carus.v. Lao
Tzŭ's Tao-Teh-Ching, Ch. XVII, 1, trans. by Carus.
With Ku Kuang-ts`ê ### reads ###.
As Duke Ai had ministers who spurned visitors from outside and
formed juntas at home in deceiving the ruler, Chung-ni persuaded him to select
worthies for office. By worthies he meant not men who would exert their
strength and render meritorious services, but those whom the ruler judged to be
worthy. Now, supposing Duke Ai knew that the three ministers spurned visitors
from outside and formed juntas at home, then the three men could not continue
As Duke Ching rewarded officials each with a fief of one hundred
chariots, Chung-ni persuaded him to economize expenditure, whereby he advised
him to have no way of enjoying pleasures and luxuries but remain personally
frugal. In consequence, the country would fall into poverty. Suppose there is a
ruler who supports himself with the income from the area of one thousand li
square. Then even Chieh and Chow could not be more extravagant than he. Now,
the Ch`i State covers an area of three thousand li square. With half of its
income Duke Huan supported himself. In this manner he was more extravagant than
Chieh and Chow.
Indeed, a single reply to the three Dukes that would enable them
to get rid of all worries should be "Know your inferiors". If the ruler knows
the inferiors well, then he can nip an evil in the bud. If evils are nipped in
the bud, no villainy will be accumulated. If no villainy is accumulated, no
junta will be formed. If no junta is formed, public welfare
One morning when Tzŭ-ch`an of Chêng went out and passed through the quarters of eastern craftsmen, he heard a woman crying. Therefore, he held the coachman's hand still and listened to the crying. Meanwhile, he sent out an official to arrest her. After examining her, he found out that she had strangled her husband with her own hands. Another day the coachman asked, "Master, how could you tell that she had killed her husband?" "Her voice was fearful," said Tzŭ-ch`an. "As a rule, people react to their beloved in the following ways: When the beloved has just fallen ill, they are worried about the illness; when he or she is dying, they feel fearful; after the death, they feel sad. Now that the woman crying over her dead husband was not sad but fearful, I could tell there was villainy behind it."
Some critic says: Was Tzŭ-ch`an's way of government not
burdensome? The culprit was found out only after she had fallen within the
reaches of the premier's ears and eyes. If so, very few culprits could be found
out in the Chêng State. Not employing judicial officials, not carefully
observing v. supra,
p. 265.Cf.
Tao-Teh-Ching, Ch. LXV, 2, trans. by Carus.
King Chao of Ch`in asked the chamberlains, saying, "How is the
present strength of Han and Wey compared with their former strength?" In reply
they said, "They are now weaker than before." "How are Ju êrh and Wey Ch`i at
present compared with Mêng Ch`ang
The Book of Warring States has ### ###, ### below the
preceding sentence. I deem it necessary to supply this sentence below the
preceding one.
Some critic says: King Chao's question was mistaken; the replies by the chamberlains and Chung-ch`i were wrong. As a rule, the enlightened sovereign in governing the state holds fast to his position. As long as his position is not injured, even though the forces of All-under-Heaven combine against him, they could do nothing against him. Then how much less could Mêng Ch`ang, Mang Mao, Han, and Wey do against Ch`in? However, if the position can be injured, then even unworthy men like Ju êrh and Wey Ch`i and the weak forces of Han and Wey can be detrimental to it. Such being the case, violability and inviolability both rest on nothing but the reliability of one's own position. Why did he raise the question then? If the sovereign relies on the inviolability of his own position, he minds no enemy whether strong or weak. If he cannot rely on his own position but keeps asking about the strength of his enemies, suffering no invasion will be a godsend to him. Shên Tzŭ said, "Who loses sight of calculations and looks to people's words for bases of belief, will for ever be in doubt," which was applicable to King Chao's case.
Earl Chih had no rules of self-restraint. Thus, while taking
Viscounts K`ang of Han and Hsüan of Wey along, he thought
Kuan Tzŭ said, "When the ruler approves the minister's
conduct, he manifests evidences
Some critic says: Public grounds and sublime shrines are places
where all behave with respect; dark rooms and solitary quarters are places
where even Tsêng Shan and Shih Ch`in become undisciplined. To observe people
when they behave respectfully is not to be able to get at the realities of
them. Moreover, in the presence of the ruler and superior every minister and
inferior is forced to polish his manners. If both approval and disapproval rest
on what is seen, it is certain that ministers and inferiors will disguise
wicked things and thereby befool their masters. If the ruler's own insight
cannot illuminate distant crooks and discern hidden secrets and thereby guard
against them, to fix reward and
Kuan Tzŭ said, "Whose words said inside the private room
prevail upon everybody in the room, and whose words said inside the public hall
prevail upon everybody in the hall, he can be called ruler of
All-under-Heaven."
Some critic says: What Kuan Chung meant by the
Once Sun
Wên-tzŭ of Wei visited the court of Lu. When the Duke was going up a
flight of steps, he also went up at the same time. Thereupon Shu-sun
Mu-tzŭ rushed forward and said, "At every conference of the feudal lords,
His Highness never walks behind the Ruler of Wei. Now, you are not walking one
step behind our Ruler while our Ruler does not notice the fault. Will you go a
little bit more slowly?" Yet Sun Tzŭ neither had any word to say nor
showed any sign of reform. When Mu-tzŭ withdrew from the party, he said
to people, "Sun Tzŭ will go to ruin. Being a failing minister, he would
not walk behind a ruler.
Some critic says: When Sons of Heaven lost the way of government,
feudal lords replaced
Some other critic says: Minister and ruler have their respective
duties. If the minister can rob the ruler of the throne, it is because they
have over-ridden each other's duties. Therefore, if the ruler takes what is not
his due, the masses will take it away from him. If the minister declines his
due and takes it afterwards, the people will give it back to him. For this
reason, Chieh sought after the girls of Min-shan and Chow made request for Pi
Kan's heart with the immediate result that All-under-Heaven were thereby
estranged from them. Likewise, T`ang had to change his personal name and Wu
received punishment
Cf. supra, XXI,
p. 218).
Yang Hu of Lu schemed to attack the Three Huans, failed in the
campaign, and fled to Ch`i. There Duke Ching paid him great respects. Against
such a measure Pao Wên-tzŭ remonstrated with him, saying, "It is not
practicable. Yang Hu had been in favour with the Chi Clan but attempted to
attack
Some critic says: If the millionaire's son is not benevolent, it
is because everybody is by nature anxious to gain profit. Duke Huan was the
first of the Five Hegemonic Rulers, but in struggling for the throne, he killed
his elder brother because the profit was great. The relationship between
minister and ruler is not even as intimate as that between brothers. If through
the accomplishment of intimidation and murder one can rule over the state of
ten thousand chariots and enjoy the
1 With Ku Kuang-ts`ê below ### should be
supplied ###.
Some other critic says: Benevolence and covetousness do not inhere
in the same mind. For instance, Prince Mu-i declined the throne of Sung offered
by his brother, whereas Shang-ch`ên of Ch`u murdered his royal father in order
to get the throne. Ch`ü-chih of Chêng passed the reins of government over to
his younger brother, whereas Duke Huan of Lu murdered his elder brother, Duke
Yin. The Five Hegemonic Rulers practised the policy of annexing weaker
When Chêng Pai was about to appoint Kao Chü-mi high officer, Duke
Chao, then the heir apparent, disliked him and
Some critic says: Prince Yü's remark was absurd. Duke Chao met the
disaster because he was too late in revenging himself on his enemy. If so, Kao
Pai died late because his revenge for a dislike was too serious. Indeed, the
The gentleman's remark on Duke Chao's knowledge of the right man
to dislike did not mean that the dislike was too serious, but that in spite of
his clear knowledge as such he never inflicted punishment upon the man till
finally he died at the hands of the man. Therefore, the saying, "He knew the
right man to dislike," exposed the powerlessness of Duke Chao. As a ruler of
men, he not only failed to foresee an impending danger, but also failed to
prevent and suppress it. Now, Duke Chao displayed his dislike for Kao Chü-mi
but suspended the conviction of his crime and did not censure him. Thereby he
made Chü-mi bear him a grudge, fear capital punishment, and risk his own
fortune. In consequence, the Duke could not evade murder. Thus, Kao Pai's
Some other critic says: Who over-compensates for an evil, would
inflict a big punishment for a small offence. To inflict a big punishment for a
small offence is an eccentric action by the criminal court. It constitutes a
worry to the court. The menace arises not from the criminals already
At the time of Duke Ling of Wei, Mi Tzŭ-hsia was in favour
with him in the Wei State. One day, a certain clown, when seeing the Duke,
said, "The dream of thy servant has materialized, indeed." "What did you
dream?" asked the Duke. "Thy servant dreamt of a cooking stove," replied
Some critic says: The clown did very well in making a pretext of
dreaming of a cooking stove and thereby rectifying the way of the sovereign,
whereas Duke Ling did not fully understand the clown's saying. For to remove
Yung Ch`u, dismiss Mi Tzŭ-hsia, and employ Ssŭ-k`ung Kou, was to
remove his favourites and employ a man he regarded as worthy. For the same
reason, Tzŭ-tu of Chêng regarded Ch`in Chien as worthy, he was deluded;
Tzŭ-k`uai regarded Tzŭ-chih as worthy, he was deluded. Indeed, who
dismisses his favourites and employs men he considers worthy, cannot help
allowing the "worthies" to stand before him. If an unworthy man stands before
the sovereign, he is not sufficient to hurt the sovereign's sight. Now, if the
Duke in no wise increased his wisdom
Some other critic says: Ch`ü Tao tasted water-chestnuts, King Wên
tasted calamus pickles. The two worthies did taste them, though both were not
delicious tastes. Thus, what man tastes is not necessarily delicious. Duke
History of Chinese Political Thought during the Early
Tsin Period, p. 117, f.I), which is a great mistake. Derk Bodde rendered
shih (###) as "power" or "authority" (Fung,
History of Chinese Philosophy: The Period of the
Philosophers, p. 318 ff.), which is inaccurate. For shih, a special term employed by the ancient Chinese
legalists, I have chosen "position" in English inasmuch as it implies
"circumstance" objectively and "influence" subjectively and, moreover, is
intimately related to wei (###) for which I have used
"status".Shên Tzŭ said:—
"The flying dragon rides on the clouds and the rising serpent
strolls through the mists; but as soon as the clouds disperse and the mists
clear up, the dragon and the serpent become the same as the earthworm and the
large-winged black ant, because they have then lost what they rested on. If
worthies are subjected by unworthy men, it is because their power is weak and
their status is low; whereas if the
"From this I know that position and status are sufficient to rely
on, and that virtue and wisdom are not worth yearning after. Indeed, if the bow
is weak and the arrow flies high, it is because it is driven up by the wind; if
the orders of an
In response to Shên Tzŭ some critic says:—
"True, the flying dragon rides on the clouds and the rising
serpent strolls through the mists. The dependence of the dragon and the serpent
on the circumstances of the clouds and the mists I never deny. However, if you
cast worthiness aside and trust to position entirely, is it sufficient to
attain political order? No such instance have I ever been able to witness.
Indeed, if the dragon and the serpent, when having the circumstances of clouds
and mists, can ride on and stroll through them, it is because their talents are
excellent.
"As regards human nature, worthies are few and worthless persons
many. Because the unworthy men who disturb the world are supplied with the
advantage of authority and position, those who by means of their position
disturb the world are many and those who by means of their position govern the
world well are few. Indeed, position is both an advantage to order and a
facility to chaos. Hence the History of Chou says: `Do
not add wings to tigers. Otherwise, they will fly into the village, catch
people, and devour them.'
"Indeed, to place unworthy men in advantageous positions is the
same as to add wings to tigers. Thus, Chieh and Chow built high terraces and
deep pools to exhaust people's strength and made roasting pillars to injure
people's lives.
"For instance, a swift horse and a solid carriage, if you make
bondmen and bondwomen drive them, will be ridiculed by people, but, if driven
by Wang Liang, will make one thousand li a day. The horse and the carriage are
not different. Yet, if they sometimes make one thousand li a day and are
sometimes ridiculed by people, it is because the skilful Digest of Classics has no ### below ###.
In response to the foregoing criticism some other critic says:—
"The philosopher considered position sufficiently reliable for
governing officials and people. The critic said that you had to depend on
worthies for political order. As a matter of truth, neither side is reasonable
enough. Indeed, the term shih ### is a generic name. Its
species cover innumerable varieties. If the term shih is
always restricted to that variety entirely due to nature, then there will be no
use in disputing on the subject. What is meant by shih
on which I am talking is the shih created by man. Now,
the critic said, `When Yao and Shun had shih, order
obtained; when Chieh and Chow had shih, chaos
prevailed.' Though I do not deny the success of Yao and Shun, yet I do assert
that shih is not what one man alone can create.
"Indeed, if Yao and Shun were born in the superior status and even
ten Chiehs and Chows could not create any commotion, the political order would
then be due to the force of circumstances. If Chieh and Chow were born in the
superior status and even ten Yaos and Shuns could not attain order, the
political chaos would then be due to the force of circumstances. Hence the
saying: `Where there is order by force of circumstances, there can be no chaos;
where there is chaos by force of circumstances, there can be no order.' Such is
the shih due to nature; it cannot be created by man.
"By shih the critic
shih I mean only the kind of shih
as acquired by man. Worthiness has nothing to do with it. How to clarify this
point?
"Somebody said: Once there was a man selling halberds
"In fact, the shields advertised to be `impenetrable' and the
halberds advertised to be `absolutely penetrative' shih cannot forbid anything, but
shih employed as a way of government forbids everything.
Now, to bring together worthiness that cannot forbid anything and
shih that the same preducats
cannot be both affirmed and denied of precisely the same subject.
"Moreover, Yao and Shun as well as Chieh and Chow appear once in a
thousand generations; whereas the opposite
shih. The average rulers neither come up to
the worthiness of Yao and Shun nor reach down to the wickedness of Chieh and
Chow. If they uphold the law and make use of their august position, order
obtains;
"Indeed, when you abandon the tools of stretching and bending and
give up the scales of weights and measures, then though you try to make Hsi
Chung construct a carriage, he would not be able to finish even a single wheel.
Similarly, without the promise of reward and the threat of penalty, and casting
the position out of use and giving up the law, then even if Yao and Shun
preached from door to door and explained to everybody the gospel of political
order, they could not even govern three families. Verily, that
shih is worth employing, is evident. To say that it is
necessary to depend upon worthiness is not true.
"Besides, if you let anyone eat nothing for one hundred days while waiting for good rice and meat to come, the starveling will not live. Now, to depend upon the worthiness of Yao and Shun for governing the people of the present world is as fallacious as to wait for good rice and meat to save the starveling's life.
"Indeed, I do not consider it right to say that a swift horse and
a solid carriage, when driven by bondmen and
"Further, in matters of driving, the critic chose Wang Liang for a case of success and took bondmen and bondwomen for a case of failure; in matters of government, he selected Yao and Shun for attaining order and Chieh and Chow for creating chaos. To run from one extreme to another is as fallacious as to consider taste as sweet as wheat-gluten and honey or else as bitter as parti-coloured lettuce and bitter parsley.
"In short, the criticism, composed of flippant contentions and
wordy repetitions, is absurd and tactless. It is a dilemma involving two
extremes
pien ### connotes both "dispute" and "controversy" in
English. Therefore in the translation of this work Somebody asked: "How does
dialectic originate?"
The reply was: "It originates from the superior's lack of enlightenment."
The inquirer asked: "How can the superior's lack of enlightenment produce dialectic?"
The reply was: "In the state of an enlightened sovereign, his
orders are the most precious among the words of men and his laws are the most
appropriate rules to affairs. Two different words cannot be equally precious
nor can two different laws be equally appropriate. Therefore, words and deeds
not conforming to laws and decrees must be forbidden. If anybody, not
authorized by laws and orders, attempts to cope with foreign intrigues, guard
against civil disturbances, produce public benefit, or manage state affairs,
his superior should heed his word and hold it accountable for an
v. Fung, op. cit., p. 323).
"The same is not true in a chaotic age. The sovereign issues
orders, but the subjects by means of their cultural learning derogate them;
official bureaux promulgate laws,
"Indeed, words and deeds should take function and utility as mark
and target. To be sure, if someone sharpens an arrow and shoots it at random,
then though its pointed head may by chance hit the tip of an autumn spikelet,
he cannot be called a skilful archer. For he has no constant aim and mark. Now,
if the target were five inches in diameter and the arrow were shot from a
distance of one hundred steps,
"For this reason, in a chaotic age, people, when listening to
speeches, regard unintelligible wordings as profound and far-fetched
discussions as eloquent; and, when observing deeds, regard deviations from
group creeds as worthy and offences against superiors as noble. Even the lord
of men likes eloquent and profound speeches, and honours worthy
supra, p. 116.
Hsü Chü once asked T`ien Chiu, saying:
"Thy servant has heard that wise men do not have to start from a low post
before they win the ruler's confidence, nor do sages have to manifest their
merits before they approach the superior. Now Yang-ch`êng Ih-chü was a famous
general, but he rose from
In reply T`ien Chiu said: "It is for no other reason than this:
The sovereign has rules and the superior has tacts. Moreover, have you never
heard that Sung Ku, a general of Ch`u, disordered the government, and Fêng Li,
Premier of Wey, ruined that state? It was because both their rulers, as misled
by their high-sounding phrases and bewildered by their eloquent speeches, never
tested their abilities as camp master and district-magistrate that the miseries
of
T`ang-ch`i Kung once said to Han Tzŭ
a.d.
768-824).
In response to the remark Han Tzŭ said: "Thy servant
understands your honourable counsels very well. Indeed, the exercise of the
ruling authority of All-under-Heaven and the unification of the regulation of
the masses is not an easy task. Nevertheless, the reason why thy servant has
given up your honourable
Some inquirer asked: "Of the teachings of the two authorities, Shên Pu-hai and Kung-sun Yang, which is more urgently needful to the state?"
In reply I said: "It is impossible to compare them. Man, not eating for ten days, would die, and, wearing no clothes in the midst of great cold, would also die. As to which is more urgently needful to man, clothing or eating, it goes without saying that neither can be dispensed with, for both are means to nourish life. Now Shên Pu-hai spoke about the need of tact and Kung-sun Yang insisted on the use of law. Tact is the means whereby to create posts according to responsibilities, hold actual services accountable according to official titles, exercise the power over life and death, and examine the officials' abilities. It is what the lord of men has in his grip. Law includes mandates and ordinances that are manifest in the official bureaux, penalties that are definite in the mind of the people, rewards that are due to the careful observers of laws, and punishments that are inflicted on the offenders against orders. It is what the subjects and ministers take as model. If the ruler is tactless, delusion will come to the superior; if the subjects and ministers are lawless, disorder will appear among the inferiors. Thus, neither can be dispensed with: both are implements of emperors and kings."
The inquirer next asked: "Why is it that tact without law or law without tact is useless?"
In reply I said: "Shên Pu-hai was assistant to Marquis Chao of
Han. Han was one of the states into which Chin had been divided. Before the old
laws of Chin had been repealed, the new laws of Han appeared; before the orders
of the earlier rulers had been removed, the orders of the later rulers were
issued. As Shên Pu-hai neither enforced the laws nor unified the mandates and
ordinances, there were many culprits. Thus, whenever old laws and earlier
orders produced advantages, they were followed; whenever new laws and later
orders produced advantages, they were followed, too. So long as old and new
b.c.
"Kung-sun Yang, while governing Ch`in, established the system
b.c., the first year of the reign of Duke Hsiao.
His petition for radical changes in the law was accepted in 359
b.c. when Duke Hsiao trusted him with all state
affairs. Upon the death of Duke Hsiao in 335 b.c.
Lord Shang had already governed Ch`in for over twenty years, which period of
time was thereby referred to in the text.
The inquirer again asked: "Suppose the ruler applies the tact of Shên Tzŭ and the officials observe the law of Lord Shang. Would everything work out right?"
In reply I said: "Shên Tzŭ was not thorough in the doctrine of tact, Lord Shang was not thorough in the doctrine of law."
"According to Shên Tzŭ, no official should override his commission and utter uncalled-for sentiments despite his extra knowledge. Not to override one's commission means to keep to his duty. To utter uncalled-for sentiments despite one's extra knowledge, is called a fault. After all, it is only when the lord of men sees things with the aid of everybody's eyes in the country that in visual power he is surpassed by none; it is only when he hears things with the aid of everybody's ears in the country that in auditory power he is surpassed by none. Now that those who know do not speak, where is the lord of men going to find aid?
"According to the Law of Lord Shang, `who cuts off one head in war
is promoted by one grade in rank, and, if he wants to become an official, is
given an office worth fifty piculs; who cuts off two heads in war is promoted
by two grades in rank, and, if he wants to become an official, is given an
office worth one hundred piculs'. Thus, promotion in office and rank is
equivalent to the merit in head-cutting. Now supposing there were a law
requesting those who cut off heads in war to become physicians and carpenters,
then neither houses would be built nor would diseases be cured. Indeed,
carpenters have manual skill; physicians know how
Hence my saying: "The two philosophers in the doctrines of law and tact were not thoroughly perfect."
In general, the principal way of
government does not solely mean the justice of reward and punishment. Much less
does it mean
Modern people all say, "Who honours the sovereign and safeguards
the country, always resorts to benevolence,
In bygone days, the Yu-hu Clan had Shih Tu; the Huan-tou Clan had
Ku Nan; the Three Miaos had Ch`êng Chü; Chieh had Hu Ch`i; Chow had Marquis
Ch`ung; and Chin had Actor Shih. These six men were "state-ruining ministers".
Of the former sovereigns, some got men through whom they became safe and their states were preserved, and some got men through whom they were jeopardized and their states went to ruin. The getting of men was one and the same but the differences between gains and losses are hundreds of thousands. Therefore, the lord of men must not fail to take precautions against his attendants. If the lord of men clearly understands the words of the ministers, he can differentiate the worthy from the unworthy as black from white.
Hsü Yu, Shu Ya, Pai Yang,
Kuan Lung-p`êng, Prince Pi Kan, Chi Liang of Sui, Hsieh Yeh of
Ch`ên, Pao Shên
As regards T`ien Hêng of Ch`i, Tzŭ-han of Sung, Chi-sun
I-ju, Ch`iao Ju
Hou Chi, Kao Yao, Yi Yin, Duke Tan of Chou, T`ai-kung Wang, Kuan
Chung, Hsi P`êng, Pai Li-hsi, Chien Shu, Uncle Fan, Chao Shuai, Fan Li, High
Official Chung, Fêng Tung, Hua Têng, these fifteen men, while ministers, all
got up early in the morning and went to bed late at night, humbled themselves
and debased their bodies; they were, cautious in mind and frank in intention,
and clarified penal actions and attended to official duties in serving their
rulers. When they presented good counsels to the Throne and convinced their
masters thoroughly of right laws, they dared not boast of their own goodness.
When they had achieved merits and accomplished tasks, they dared not show off
their services. They made no hesitation in sacrificing their family interests
to benefit their countries and no hesitation in sacrificing their lives to
safeguard the sovereigns, holding their sovereigns in as high esteem as high
heaven and the T`ai Mountain and regarding themselves as low as the deep
ravines and the Fu-yu
Hua Chih of Chou, Kung-sun
Whoever had ministers like these men, always was put to death and
his state driven to ruin, and has been ridiculed by All-under-Heaven. Thus,
Duke Wei of Chou was killed and his state divided into two; Tzŭ-yang of
Chêng was killed and his state divided into three; Duke Ling of Ch`ên was
killed by Hsia Chêng-shu; King Ling of Ching died by the Dry Brook; Sui was
ruined by Ching; Wu was annexed by Yüeh; Earl Chih was extinguished in the
vicinity of Historical Records ### should be supplied above ###.
The same is not true of sage-kings and enlightened rulers. When
selecting able men for office, they mind neither relatives nor enemies. Whoever
is right is raised, whoever is wrong is punished. Therefore, the worthy and
good are advanced; the vicious and wicked are dismissed. Naturally they can at
one effort bring all the feudal lords under submission. Thus in ancient
Records there is the saying: "Yao had Tan-chu, Shun had
Shang-chün, Ch`i had Five Princes, Shang had T`ai-chia, and King Wu had Kuan
and Ts`ai." Now, all these men censured by the five rulers were related to them
as father and son, uncle and nephew, cousins, or brothers. But why were their
bodies broken and their families ruined? It was because they were
state-ruining, people-harming, and
The ignoble sovereigns would act differently. Not aware of the motives and actions of their ministers, they entrusted them with state affairs. In consequence, their names are debased and their territories dismembered; or, what is worse, their states are ruined and they themselves are killed. For they do not know how to employ ministers.
Rulers who have no measures to estimate their ministers, always
judge them on the basis of the sayings of the masses. Whoever is praised by the
masses, is liked. Therefore, those who minister to rulers would even disrupt
their families and ruin their property to form factions inside and keep contact
with influential clans and thereby become known. When they form secret promises
and alliances and thereby strengthen their positions, and when they deceptively
reward
They also disguise deceitful men as favourite envoys from the
feudal lords and equip them with coaches and horses, provide them with jade and
bamboo tablets,
Indeed, if the ranks and bounties of wicked men are influential
and their partisans and adherents are many, and if besides, they have vicious
and wicked motives, their wicked subordinates will persuade them time and time
again, saying: "The so-called sage-rulers and enlightened kings of antiquity
succeeded their predecessors not as juniors succeeding seniors in the natural
order,
"As witnessed by recent times," continue the crooks further,
"Viscount T`ien Chêng took Ch`i, Ssŭ-ch`êng
Again, those who intimidate and murder the rulers with partisans
and adherents at home and reform or alter their states through the influences
of the feudal lords outside, thus concealing the right way and upholding
private crookedness so as to restrain the ruler above and obstruct the
government below, are innumerable. Why? It is because the ruler does not know
how to select ministers. The ancient Records says:
"Since the time of King Hsüan of Chou ruined states number several tens and
ministers who murdered their rulers and took their states are many." If so, the
calamities which originated inside and those which developed from outside
If the lord of men
For example, Marquis Ching, an early Ruler of Chao, never
cultivated his virtuous conduct, but would give rein to the satisfaction of
desires and enjoy physical comforts and auditory and visual pleasures. He spent
winter days in hunting with nets and stringed arrows and summer time in boating
and fishing. He would sometimes drink all night long, sometimes even hold his
wine cup for several days, pour wine with bamboo ladles into the mouths of
those who could not drink, and behead anybody not prudent in advance and
retreat or not reverent in response and reply. Though his way of living,
acting, drinking, and eating, was so unscrupulous and his way of censure and
execution was so reckless, yet he enjoyed ruling his state for more than ten
years,
Historical Records Marquis Ching was on
the throne only for twelve years.
Contrary to this, Tzŭ-k`uai, Ruler of Yen, a descendant of
Duke Shih of Chao, ruled
Hence the saying: "Ministers have five wickednesses, which the
sovereign does not know." Some would make extravagant use of cash and goods as
bribes for acquiring honours; some would endeavour to bestow rewards and
favours for winning the hearts of the masses; some would endeavour to form
cliques, exert their wisdom, and honour
Indeed, if the sage-sovereigns and enlightened rulers do not make
Record of
Chou says: "Do not exalt the concubine and humble the wife. Do not debase
the legitimate son and exalt the bastard. Do not exalt any favourite
subordinate as rival to high officials. Do not exalt any chief vassal to assume
the majesty of his sovereign." If the four assumers collapse, the superior will
have no worry and the inferiors will have no surprise.
Means the sage employs to lead to political order are
three. The first is said to be profit; the second, authority; and the third,
fame. Profit is the means whereby the people's hearts are won; authority is the
means whereby to enforce orders; fame is the common way linking superior and
inferior. Nothing other than these three is so needful to government.
In these days, there is no lack of profit, but the people are not
won over to the superior's wishes; there is no absence of authority, but the
inferiors do not obey decrees; and there is no absence of laws among the
officials, but
Indeed, what the superior values is often contrary to the purpose of government. For instance, to institute names and titles is to embody honours; but those who look down upon fame and make light of facts, the world calls advanced. Again, to institute ranks and grades is to establish the basal scale of high and low; but those who slight the superior and never petition for audience, the world calls worthy. Again, authority and profit are means to enforce orders; but those who desire no profit and disregard all authority, the world calls dignified. Again, laws and decrees are means to attain political order; but those who obey neither laws nor decrees but pursue their own good, the world calls loyal. Again, office and rank are means to encourage people; but those who like fame but want no office, the world calls heroic patriots. Finally, punishments are means to solidify authority; but those who make light of law, and award neither penalty nor slaughter, the world calls fearless. If the people seek fame more urgently than they look for profit, small wonder scholars who are starving and destitute would even dwell in rocky caves and torture themselves purposely to fight for a name in the world.
Therefore, the cause of disorder in the world is not the inferior's fault but the superior's loss of Tao. As the superior always values the way to chaos and despises the way to order, the ideal of the inferiors is always contrary to the purpose of the superior's government.
Now, the inferiors' obedience to the superior is what the superior
urgently needs. However, those who are generous, sincere, genuine, and
faithful, and active in mind but timid in speech, are called spiritless; those
who follow laws firmly and obey orders fully, are called stupid; those who
revere the
The inferiors, acting in such wicked
In general, what the superior administers, is penal infliction,
but people doing favours in private are honoured. The Altar of the Spirits of
Land and Grain can stand because of national safety and tranquillity, but
deceitful, crafty, slanderous, and flattering people are appointed to office.
Everybody under the jurisdiction of the state obeys orders because of trust and
justice, but people exerting their wisdom to upset the present regime are
employed. Orders prevail widely and authority stands well because of the
inferiors' prudence and alertness to obey the superior, but men living in rocky
caves and cursing the world are celebrated. Public storehouses and granaries
are full because of the people's devotion to the primary duties of tilling and
farming, but men engaged in such secondary callings as weaving twilled cloth,
embroidering and knitting clothes in gold and silver, and engraving and
drawing, are enriched. Reputation is accomplished and territory
The superior holds scales and measures in his hands in order to
have the power over everybody's life in his grip, but nowadays men who obey
scales and observe measures, though anxious to exert the spirit of loyalty to
serve the superior, cannot have an audience, while those who utter artful words
and flattering phrases, play villainous tricks, and by lucky chance rise in the
world, frequently attend on the Throne. To abide by law, talk straight, keep
fame equal to norm, and censure the culprit according to the inked string, is
to promote order on behalf of the superior, but people so doing are estranged
while adulatory and heretical
Indeed, to parade good fields and pretty residences is to
encourage warriors to fight, but men resolved to have their heads cut off,
abdomens torn open, and bones exposed in wildernesses,
Indeed, when the superior's name is degraded and his position
endangered, it is always because the inferiors are not obedient to laws and
orders, double-faced, pursuing private studies,
The superior sets up the principles of integrity and
Prizes and gifts are meant to exalt men of merit, but men having
given distinguished service in warfare remain poor and humble while flatterers
and actors rise above their due grades, names, and titles. Sincerity and faith
are meant to manifest authority, but the sovereign is deluded by courtiers;
ladies and interviewers proceed in parallel; officials administer the
Indeed, the purpose of enacting laws and decrees is to abolish
selfishness. Once laws and decrees prevail, the way of selfishness collapses.
Selfishness disturbs the law.
In general, whoever disturbs the superior and acts contrary to the
age, is always a scholar having a double-face and pursuing private studies.
Therefore, in my main discourse I say: "The cause of order is law, the cause of
chaos is selfishness. Once law is enacted, no selfish act can be done." Hence
the saying: "Whoever tolerates selfishness finds chaos, whoever upholds law
finds order." If the superior misses the right way, astute men will use selfish
phraseology and worthies will cherish selfish motives, principals will bestow
selfish favours, and subordinates will pursue selfish
Who fears death and shuns
difficulty, is the type of citizen who would surrender or retreat, but the
world reveres him by calling him "a life-valuing gentleman". Who studies the
ways of the early kings and propounds theories of his own, is the type of
citizen that would neglect the law, but the world reveres him by calling him "a
cultured and learned
Who would venture risks and die in the cause of loyalty, is the
type of citizen that chooses death before infidelity, but the world despises
him by calling him "a planless subject". Who learns little but obeys orders, is
the law-abiding type of
Thus, the wicked, fraudulent, and useless citizens include six types, but the world praises them in those manners; so do the tilling, fighting, and useful citizens include six types, but the world blames them in these manners. These are called "six contrarieties".
If the hemp-clothed commoners in accordance with their private interests praise people, and if the lord of this age believing in bubble reputations respects them, then whoever is respected, will be accorded profits. If the hundred surnames on account of private feud with them slander them, and if the lord of this age, as misled by the beaten track of men, despises them, then whoever is despised, will suffer damage. Therefore, fame and rewards will go to selfish, vicious citizens deserving punishment; while blame and damages will befall public-spirited, upright gentlemen deserving reward. If so, then to strive for the wealth and strength of the state is impossible.
The ancients had a proverb saying: "To govern the people is like
washing one's head. Though there are falling hairs, the washing must needs be
done." Whoever regrets the waste of the falling hairs and forgets the gain of
the growing hairs, does not know the doctrine of expediency.
Indeed, opening boils causes pain; taking drugs causes bitter taste. Yet, if boils are not opened on account of pain and drugs not taken on account of bitterness, the person will not live and the disease will not stop.
Now the relationship between superior and inferior involves no
affection of father and son, if anyone wishes to rule the inferiors by
practising righteousness, the
The learned men of to-day, on counselling the lord of men, all
persuade him to discard the profit-seeking mind and follow the way of mutual
love. Thereby they demand more from the lord of men than from parents. Such is
an immature view of human relationships: it is both deceitful and fallacious.
Indeed, the culprits, if infallibly detected, would take
precautions; if definitely censured, they would stop. If not detected, they
would become dissolute; if not censured, they
Therefore, the enlightened sovereign in governing the state would increase custodians and intensify penalties and make the people stop vices according to law but not owing to their own sense of integrity. For illustration, mothers love children twice as much as fathers do, but a father enforces orders among children ten times better than a mother does. Similarly, officials have no love for the people, but they enforce orders among the people ten thousand times better than their parents do. Parents heap up their love but their orders come to naught; whereas officials exercise force and the people obey them. Thus, you can easily make the choice between severity and affection.
Furthermore, what parents desire of children is safety and
prosperity in livelihood and innocence in conduct. What the ruler requires of
his subjects, however, is to demand their lives in case of emergency and
exhaust their energy in time of peace. Now, parents, who love their children
and wish
If any family of to-day, in making property, share hunger and cold
together and endure toil and pain with one another, it would be such a family
that can enjoy warm clothes and nice food in time of warfare and famine. On the
contrary, those who help one another with clothing and food and amuse one
another with entertainments, would become such families that give wives in
marriage and set children for sale in time of famine and during the year of
drought. Thus, law as the way to order may cause gain at first, but will give
gain in the long run; whereas benevolence as the way to order may give pleasure
for the moment, but will become fruitless in the end. Measuring their relative
weights and choosing the one for the greatest good, the sage would adopt the
legal way of mutual perseverance and discard the benevolent
Moreover, heavy penalties are not for the sole purpose of
punishing criminals. The law of the intelligent sovereign, in suppressing
rebels, is not disciplining only those who are being suppressed, for to
discipline only the suppressed is the same as to discipline dead men only
Indeed, liberal rewards are meant not only to reward men of merit
but also to encourage the whole state. The rewarded enjoy the benefits; those
not as yet rewarded look forward to their future accomplishment. This is to
requite one man for his merit and to encourage the whole populace within the
Now, those who do not know the right way to order all say: "Heavy penalties injure the people. Light penalties can suppress villainy. Then why should heavy penalties be necessary?" Such speakers are really not well versed in the principles of order. To be sure, what is stopped by heavy penalties is not necessarily stopped by light penalties; but what is stopped by light penalties is always stopped by heavy penalties. For this reason, where the superior sets up heavy penalties, there all culprits disappear. If all culprits disappear, how can the application of heavy penalties be detrimental to the people?
In the light of the so-called "heavy penalties", what the culprits
can gain, is slight, but what the superior inflicts, is great. As the people
never venture a big penalty for the sake of a small gain, malefactions will
eventually disappear. In the face of the so-called "light penalties", however,
what the culprits gain, is great, but what the superior inflicts, is slight. As
the people long for the profit and ignore the slight punishment, malefactions
never will disappear. Thus, the early sages had a proverb, saying: "Nobody
stumbles against a mountain, but everybody trips over an ant-hill." The
mountain being large, everyone takes notice
The learned men of to-day, one and all, cite the panegyrics in the
classics, and, without observing closely the real facts, of the present age,
say: "If the superior does not love the people and always levies exactions and
taxations, then living expenses will become insufficient and the inferiors will
hate
Take, for example, the beloved sons of wealthy families, who are given sufficient money to spend. Having sufficient money to spend, they spend it freely. Spending money freely, they indulge in extravagance. The parents, loving them so much, cannot bear to restrict them. Not restricted, they become self-willed. Being extravagant, they impoverish their families. Being self-willed, they practise violence. Such is the calamity of deep love and light penalty, even though there is enough money to spend.
Men as a whole, while living, if they have enough money to spend,
do not use energy; if the superior's rule is weak,
Lao Tan
v. Lao
Tzŭ's Tao Tah Ching, Chap. XLIV.
If all men are asleep, no blind man will be noticed; if all men remain silent, no mute will be detected. Awake them and ask each one to see, or question them and ask each one to reply. Then both the blind and the mute will be at a loss. Likewise, unless their speeches be heeded, the tactless will not be known; unless appointed to office, the unworthy will not be known. Heed their speeches and seek their truth; appoint them to office and hold them responsible for the results of their work. Then both the tactless and the unworthy would be at a loss. Indeed, when you want to get wrestlers but merely listen to their own words, then you cannot distinguish between a mediocre man and Wu Huo. Given tripods and bowls, then both the weak and the strong come to the fore. Similarly, official posts are the tripods and bowls to able men. Entrusted with affairs, the stupid and the intelligent will be differentiated. As a result, the tactless will not be used; the unworthy will not be appointed to office.
Nowadays, those who find their words not adopted, pretend to
eloquence by twisting their sentences; those who are not appointed to office,
pretend to refinement by disguising themselves. Beguiled by their eloquence and
deceived by their refinement, the sovereigns of this age honour and esteem
them. This is to tell the bright without finding their sight and to tell the
eloquent without finding their replies, wherefore the blind and the mute never
will be detected. Contrary to this, the intelligent sovereign,
Who does private favours to old
acquaintances, is called a kind-hearted alter ego. Who
distributes alms with public money, is called a benevolent man. Who makes light
of bounties but thinks much of himself, is called a superior man. Who strains
the law to shield his relatives, is called a virtuous man. Who deserts official
posts for cultivating personal friendships, is called a chivalrous man. Who
keeps aloof from the world and avoids all superiors, is called lofty. Who
quarrels with people and disobeys orders, is called an unyielding hero. Who
bestows favours and attracts the masses of people, is called a popular
idol.
However, the presence of kind-hearted men implies the existence of culprits among the magistrates; the presence of benevolent men, the losses of public funds; the presence of superior men, the difficulty in employing the people; the presence of virtuous men, the violation of laws and statutes; the appearance of chivalrous men, vacancies of official posts; the appearance of lofty men, the people's neglect of their proper duties; the emergence of unyielding heroes, the inefficacy of orders; and the appearance of popular idols, the isolation of the sovereign from the subjects.
These eight involve private honours to ruffians but great damage
to the lord of men. The opposite of these eight involve private damage to
ruffians but public benefits to the lord of men. If the lord of men does not
consider the benefits
To entrust men with state affairs is the pivot between life and
death, between order and chaos. If the superior has no tact to appoint men to
office, every appointment to office will end in failure. Now, those who are
taken into office by the ruler of men are either eloquent and astute or refined
and polished. To entrust men is to let them have influence. Yet astute men are
not necessarily trustworthy. Inasmuch as the ruler makes much of their wisdom,
he is thereby misled to trust them. If such astute men, with their calculating
mind, take advantage of their official influence and work after their own
private needs, the ruler will, no doubt, be deceived. For astute men are not
trustworthy. For the same reason, to appoint refined gentlemen to office is to
let them decide on state affairs. Yet the refined gentlemen are not necessarily
wise. Inasmuch as the ruler makes much of their polished manners, he is thereby
misled to regard them as wise. If such stupid men,
According to the Tao of the enlightened ruler, the humble can
What can be understood only by clear-sighted scholars should not
be made an order, because the people are not all clear-sighted. What can be
practised only by wise men should not be made a law, because the people are not
all wise. Yang Chu and Mo Ti were regarded as clear-sighted by
Erudite, learned, eloquent, and wise, as Confucius and Mo
Tzŭ were, if Confucius and Mo Tzŭ would never till and weed farming
land, what could they contribute to the state? Cultivating the spirit of filial
piety and eliminating desires as Tsêng Shan and Shih Ch`iu did, if Tsêng Shan
and Shih Ch`iu would never fight and attack, how could they benefit the state?
The ruffians have their private advantages, the lord of men has his public
benefits. Acquiring enough provisions without hard work and cultivating fame
Neither the official tablet inserted in the girdle nor the
dancer's shield and small axe can rival
Men of antiquity strove to be known as virtuous; those of the middle age struggled to be known as wise; and now men fight for the reputation of being powerful. In antiquity, events were few; measures were simple, naïve, crude, and incomplete. Therefore there were men using spears made of mother-of-pearl, and those pushing carts. In antiquity, again people were few and therefore kind to one another; things being few, they made light of profits and made alienations easy. Hence followed alienations of the throne by courtesy and transfer of the rule over All-under-Heaven. That being so, to do courteous alienations, promote compassion and beneficence, and follow benevolence and favour, was to run the government in the primitive way. In the age of numerous affairs, to employ the instruments of the management of affairs that were few, is not the wise man's measure. Again, in the age of great struggles, to follow the track of courteous alienations, is not the sage's policy. For this reason, wise men do not personally push carts and sages do not run any government in the primitive way.
Laws are means of controlling affairs. Affairs are means of
celebrating merits. When laws are made and found to involve difficulties, then
the ruler must estimate the difficulties. If he finds the tasks can be
accomplished, then he must enact them. If he finds the accomplishment of the
tasks involves losses,
Men make no fuss about balance and weight. This is not because
they are upright and honest and would ward off profits, but because the weight
can not change the quantities of things according to human wants nor can the
balance make things lighter or heavier according to human wishes. Acquiescing
in the inability to get what they want, people make no fuss. In the state of an
intelligent sovereign, officials
The compassionate mother, in loving her little child, is surpassed by none. Yet, when the child has mischievous actions, she sends him to follow the teacher; when he is badly ill, she sends him to see the physician. For without following the teacher he is liable to penalty; without seeing the physician he is susceptible to death. Thus, though the compassionate mother loves the child, she is helpless in saving him from penalty and from death. If so, what preserves the child is not love.
The bond of mother and child is love, the relationship of ruler
and minister is expediency. If the mother can not preserve the family by virtue
of love, how can the ruler maintain order in the state by means of love? The
intelligent sovereign, if well versed in the principles of wealth and strength,
can get what he wants. Thus, prudence in heeding memorials and managing affairs
is the royal road to wealth and strength. He makes his laws and prohibitions
clear and considers his schemes and plans carefully. If laws are clear, at home
there will be no worry about any emergency or disturbance; if plans are right,
there will be no disaster of either death or captivity abroad. Therefore, what
preserves the state is not benevolence and righteousness. Who is benevolent, is
tender-hearted and beneficent and makes light of
Who can not prepare good food but invites starvelings to diet, can
not save their lives. Who can not mow grass and grow rice but promotes the
distribution of loans, alms, prizes, and gifts, can not enrich the people. The
learned men of today, in their speeches, do not emphasize the need of primary
callings but are fond of advocating secondary works and preach the gospel of
emptiness and saintliness so as to delight the people. To do this is as
fallacious as to invite people to poor diet. Any persuasion of the
"invitation-to-poor-diet"
When writings are too sketchy, pupils debate; when laws
If the taste, whether sour or sweet, salty or insipid, is not
judged by the mouth of the sovereign but determined by the chef, then all the cooks will slight the ruler and revere
the chef. If the note, whether high or low, clear or
mixed, is not judged by the ear of the sovereign but by the head musician, then
the blind
Suppose people have neither clothes nor food and suffer neither
hunger nor cold and, moreover, do not fear death, then they will have no
intention to serve the superior. If they intend not to be ruled by the ruler,
the ruler can not
Ministers who act at random and give rein to their wants, are said
to be chivalrous; the lord of men who acts at random and gives rein to his
wants, is said to be outrageous. Ministers who slight the superior, are said to
be brave
Generally speaking, the order of All-under-Heaven must accord with human feelings. Human feelings have likes and dislikes, wherefore reward and punishment can be applied. If reward and punishment are applicable, prohibitions and orders will prevail and the course of government will be accomplished. As the ruler has the handles in his grip and thereby upholds his august position, what is ordered works and what is prohibited stops. The handles are regulators of life and death; the position is the means of overcoming the masses.
If dismissal and appointment have no constant rule, the
sovereign's prerogative will be profaned; if matters of reward and punishment
are administered in common by the sovereign and the inferiors, the sovereign's
authority will be shaken. For this reason, the intelligent sovereign does not
listen with the attitude of love nor does he scheme with the sense of delight.
For, if he does not compare the words he heeds, his prerogative will be shaken
by rapacious ministers; if he does not make use of the ministers' wisdom and
strength, he will
Now, rewards should not be otherwise than liberal, so that the people will consider them profitable; honours should not be otherwise than attractive, so that the people will consider them glorious; censures should not be otherwise than strict, so that the people will consider them severe; and blame should not be otherwise than odious, so that the people will consider it disgraceful. Thereafter, the ruler will universally enforce his laws. When prohibitions and censures of private families mean no harm to the people, and when men of merit deserving reward and culprits deserving punishment are always known, the system of intelligent service is accomplished.
As one man in physical strength can not rival a multitude of
people and in wisdom can not comprehend everything,
The inferior ruler exerts his own ability; the average ruler
exerts people's physical strength; and the superior ruler exerts people's
wisdom. For this reason, in case of emergency he gathers the wise men, listens
to each one, and calls a conference. If he does not listen to each one,
consequent results will be contrary to antecedent words. If consequent results
are contrary to antecedent words, there will be no distinction
Who rules over men, never busies himself with the identification
of tallies, not to mention laborious work. Nor does he busy himself in case of
Who knows ruler and
minister differ in interest, will become supreme. Who regards the difference
There are six kinds of creators of commotions, namely, dowagers,
concubines, bastards, brothers, chief vassals, and celebrities for wisdom. If
magistrates are appointed and
Ministers have two resorts, called outer and inner. The outer is
said to be "the feared"; the inner, "the loved". What is requested by the
feared is granted; what is suggested by the loved, is followed. Thus, the
feared and the loved are what the rapacious ministers appeal to. If officials
recommended by foreign states are cross-examined
Officials who advance according to the regular order till they
reach posts of great responsibilities, are wise. Those
Uncles, cousins, or worthy and excellent ministers, living in
exile, are said to be "roaming calamities"
The system of "three
units and basic fives" means to choose the plan held by the majority when
different opinions are subsumed under three categories, and to organize basic
groups of five families and implicate all the members of each group in any
member's misconduct. Thus, the comparison of different opinions always
differentiates the majority and the minority from each other; the organization
of groups of five families always holds members of the same group jointly
responsible
Compare different words and thereby know the true one. Change
In the case of similarities and resemblances, identify their
common points. When stating anybody's faults, grasp the causes, know the due
penalties,
If words are divulged and affairs leak out, then no
The lord of men has the duty of devoting his attention to
secrecy. For this reason, when his delight is revealed, his conduct will be
slighted;
If speeches heard from inferiors are not compared, the superior will find no reason to call the inferiors to account. If speeches are not held responsible for their utility, heretical theories will bewilder the superior. A word is such that people believe in it because its upholders are numerous. An unreal thing, if its existence is asserted by ten men, is still subject to doubt; if its existence is asserted by one hundred men, its reality becomes probable; and if its existence is asserted by one thousand men, it becomes undoubtable. Again, if spoken about by stammerers, it is susceptible to doubt; if spoken about by eloquent persons, it becomes believable. Wicked men, when violating their superior, rely on the support of the many for their background, display their eloquence by quoting forced analogies so as to embellish their selfish acts. If the lord of men shows no anger at them but expects to compare and identify their deeds with their words, by force of circumstances his inferiors will be benefited.
The sovereign upholding the true path, when heeding words, holds
them accountable for their utility, and charges them with their functions. From
the requirement of successful functions there issue matters of reward and
punishment. Therefore, whoever displays useless eloquence, is never kept in the
court; whoever is appointed to office, if known to be unable to perform his
duties, is removed from his post;
According to the right way of heeding suggestions in general,
the ruler requires the minister to speak loyally to him about any culprit, and
to cite wide illustrations of every suggestion presented to him for adoption.
Ministers usually present as many counsels as possible to
display their wisdom and let the ruler choose one out of them, so that they can
avoid responsibilities. Therefore, when numerous counsels appear
simultaneously, only the fallen ruler would heed them. As for the intelligent
sovereign, he would admit no alternative word in addition to the original, but
Officials are
over-powerful because there are no effective laws. Laws stop functioning
because the superior is stupid. If the superior is stupid and upholds no rule,
the officials will act at random. As the officials act at random, their
salaries will be surpassed by no precedent. If their salaries are surpassed by
no predecessor, taxes will be increased. As taxes are increased, they will
become wealthy. The wealth and powerfulness of the officials eventually breed
chaos.
Under the intelligent sovereign's Tao, only trustworthy men are
taken into service, only dutiful officials are praised, and only men of merit
are rewarded. When anybody recommends anybody else to the sovereign, if his
word materializes truly and thereby delights the ruler, then both he and the
official should be equally benefited; if his word does not truly materialize
and thereby angers the ruler, then both he and that official should be equally
punished. If so, ministers will not dare grant their uncles and cousins
personal favours, but will recommend their enemies who have the
Whoever is entrusted with public affairs, should not be over-powerful. Only to his rank should the ruler ascribe his honour. Whoever holds office should not be self-seeking. Only to his bounty should the ruler limit his income. In consequence, the people will honour ranks and esteem bounties. Thus, rank and bounty will become means of reward. When the people esteem these means of reward, the state will be in good order.
If norms are intricate, it is because terms are mistaken. If
prizes and praises are not adequate, the people will hang in suspense. Now that
the people hold both fame and prizes in equal esteem, if the rewarded are
slandered, reward will not be fit to encourage people; if the punished are
admired, then punishment will not be fit to suppress culprits. It is the
intelligent sovereign's way that rewards always result from contributions to
public benefit and that fame always originates in services to the superior. If
reward and fame follow the same track and slander and censure proceed in
parallel, the people will find nothing more glorious than to be rewarded
If the sovereign manifests chivalrous
conduct, his dignity will be shaken. If he follows theories of compassion and
benevolence, legal institutions will crumble. On account of such institutions
the people revere the superior; by virtue of his position the superior holds
down the inferior.
Under the Tao of the intelligent sovereign, no minister is
allowed to practise chivalry and give honours nor is he allowed to accomplish
any merit for his family's sake. Achievement and reputation are always based on
the initiative of the regulations of the officials. What is against law, though
it may involve difficulties, cannot be celebrated. In consequence, the people
will find no reason to make their reputation. Now, to establish laws and
regulations is to unify the people; to make reward and punishment faithful is
to exert their abilities; and to make slander and honours clear is to encourage
good and discourage evil. Fame and titles, rewards and punishments, laws and
orders, are three pairs
In the age of remote antiquity, human beings were few while birds and beasts were many. Mankind being unable to overcome birds, beasts, insects, and serpents, there appeared a sage who made nests by putting pieces of wood together to shelter people from harm. Thereat the people were so delighted that they made him ruler of All-under-Heaven and called him the Nest-Dweller. In those days the people lived on the fruits of trees and seeds of grass as well as mussels and clams, which smelt rank and fetid and hurt the digestive organs. As many of them were affected with diseases, there appeared a sage who twisted a drill to make fire which changed the fetid and musty smell. Thereat the people were so delighted that they made him ruler of All-under-Heaven.
In the age of middle antiquity, there was a great deluge in
All-under-Heaven, wherefore Kung and Yü opened channels for the water. In the
age of recent antiquity, Chieh and Chow were violent and turbulent, wherefore
T`ang and Wu
Now, if somebody fastened the trees or turned a drill in the age
of the Hsia-hou Clan, he would certainly be ridiculed by Kung and Yü. Again, if
somebody opened channels for water in the age of the Yin and Chou Dynasties, he
would
That is the reason why the sage neither seeks to follow the ways of the ancients nor establishes any fixed standard for all times but examines the things of his age and then prepares to deal with them.
There was in Sung a man, who tilled a field in which there stood
the trunk of a tree. Once a hare, while running fast, rushed against the trunk,
broke its neck, and died.
In olden times, men did not need to till, for the seeds of grass
and the fruits of trees were sufficient to feed them; nor did women have to
weave, for the skins of birds and beasts were sufficient to clothe them. Thus,
without working hard, they had an abundance of supply. As the people were few,
their possessions were more than sufficient. Therefore the people never
quarrelled. As a result, neither large rewards were bestowed nor were heavy
punishments employed, but the people governed themselves. Nowadays, however,
people do not regard five children as many. Each child may in his or her turn
beget five offspring, so that before the death of
When Yao was ruling All-under-Heaven, his thatched roof was
untrimmed and his beam unplaned. He ate unpolished grain and made soup of
coarse greens and wore deerskin garments in winter and rough fibre-cloth in
summer. Even the clothes and provisions of a gate-keeper were not more scanty
than his. When Yü was ruling All-under-Heaven, he led the people with plough
and spade in hands, till his thighs had no down and his shins grew no hair.
Even the toil of a prisoner of war was not more distressful than his. Speaking
from this viewpoint, indeed, he who abdicated the throne of the Son of Heaven
in favour of others in olden times, was simply foresaking the living of a
gate-keeper and the toil of a prisoner of war. Therefore the inheritance of
Thus, in the matter of leaving office, men make light of resigning from the ancient dignity of the Son of Heaven and consider it hard to quit the present post of a prefect. Really it is the difference between meagerness and abundance.
Indeed, those who dwell in the mountains and draw water from the
valleys, give water to each other on the occasion of festivals; those who live
in swamps hire men to open channels for the water. Likewise, in the spring of
famine years men do not even feed their infant brothers, while in
Of old, King Wên, located between Fêng and Kao, in a territory of
one hundred square li, practised benevolence and righteousness and won the
affection of the Western Barbarians, till he finally became ruler
Discourse and Balance.b.c.) of Chou
and so much earlier than King Wên (689-671 b.c.) of
Ching.
Men of remote antiquity strove to be known as moral and virtuous;
those of the middle age struggled to be known as wise and resourceful; and now
men fight for the reputation of being vigorous and powerful. When Ch`i was
about to attack Lu, Lu sent Tzŭ-kung to dissuade Ch`i. To the peace
Thus, although King Yen was benevolent and righteous, Hsü went to
ruin; although Tzŭ-kung was benevolent and righteous, Lu was dismembered.
From such a viewpoint, indeed, benevolence, righteousness, eloquence, and
Thus, we see that ancients and moderns have different customs, new and old have different measures. To govern with generous and lenient regulations a people in imminent danger is the same as to drive wild horses without reins or slips. This is a calamity of ignorance.
In these days, the Literati
Indeed, from the proposition that if ruler and minister act like father and son, there is always order, there can be inferred the judgment that there are no disorderly fathers and sons. It is human nature, however, that nobody is more affectionate than parents. If both parents reveal love to their children, and yet order is not always found in a family, then how could there be no disorder in a state even though the ruler deepens his love for the ministers? Since the early kings loved the people not more than parents love their children, and children do not always refrain from causing disturbance, how could the people so easily keep order?
Moreover, when a penalty was inflicted in accordance with the law,
the ruler shed tears therefor. By so doing he intended to show his benevolence
but not to do any good to political order. To shed bitter tears and to dislike
penalties, is
Still further, the people are such as would be firmly obedient to
authority, but are rarely able to appreciate righteousness. For illustration,
Chung-ni, who was a sage of All-under-Heaven, cultivated virtuous conduct,
Now suppose there is a boy who has a bad character. His parents
are angry at him, but he never makes any change. The villagers in the
neighbourhood reprove him, but he is never thereby moved. His masters teach
him, but he never reforms. Thus with all the three excellent disciplines, the
love of his parents, the conduct of the villagers, and the wisdom of the
masters, applied to him, he makes no change, not even a hair on his shins is
altered. It is, however, only after the district-magistrate sends out soldiers
in accordance with the law to search for wicked men that he becomes afraid
The Book of Lord
Shang (Pp. 113-114). I have, however, found it necessary to make a
different translation on many points.
Thus, over a city-wall forty feet
hsin
### is about eight feet long.ch`ang
### is about sixteen feet long.
That being so, rewards should not be other than great and certain,
thus making the people regard them as profitable; punishments should not be
other than severe and definite,
That is not true at present. On the one hand, ranks are conferred
for meritorious services; but on the other, official careers are scorned.
Rewards are bestowed for diligent tillage, but hereditary occupations
Now, he who would always fall on the enemy when his brother is
attacked, is called upright; he who would always resent an insult to his good
friend, is called pure. Yet once these deeds of uprightness and purity are
done, the law of the ruler is violated. In case the lord of men esteems such
deeds of uprightness and purity and forgets the crime violating his
prohibitions, the people will be honoured according to their boldness and the
magistrates will be unable to control them. Again, he who gets clothes and food
without working hard, is called capable; he who gets honours without rendering
any meritorious service in war, is called worthy. Yet once
The literati by means of letters disturbed laws, the cavaliers by
means of weapons transgressed prohibitions. Yet the lord of men respects them
both. That is the reason why disorder prevails. Indeed, every departure from
laws ought to be condemned, but all the professors are taken into office on
account of their literary learning. Again, every transgression of prohibitions
ought to be punished, but all cavaliers are accorded patronage because of their
private swords.
Of old, there was in the Ch`u State a man named Chi-kung. Once his
father stole a sheep, wherefore he reported to the authorities. Thereupon the
prefect said, "Put him to death", as he thought the man was loyal to the ruler
but undutiful to his father. So that man was tried and executed. From this it
Again, there was a man of Lu, who followed the ruler to war, fought three battles, and ran away thrice. When Chung-ni asked him his reason, he replied: "I have an old father. Should I die, nobody would take care of him." So Chung-ni regarded him as a man of filial piety, praised him, and exalted him. From this it can be seen that the dutiful son of the father was a rebellious subject of the ruler. Naturally, following the punishment of the honest man by the prefect, no other culprit in Ch`u was ever reported to the authorities and after the reward of the runaway by Chung-ni, the people of Lu were apt to surrender and run away. The interests of superior and inferior are thus so different that it is certainly impossible to expect the Lord of Men both to praise the deed of the common man and to promote the welfare of the Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain.
In olden times, when Ts`ang Chieh invented the system of writing,
he assigned the element "self-centered"
That being so, speaking of the common man, there comes first the
cultivation of benevolence and righteousness and then the practice of
refinement and learning. Having
Therefore, incompatible things do not coexist. For instance, to
reward those who kill their enemies in battle, and at the same time to esteem
deeds of mercy and generosity; to reward with ranks and bounties those who
capture enemy cities, and at the same time to believe in the theory of
impartial
Moreover, what the age calls "worthy" consists of merciful and faithful deeds; what it calls "wise" consists of subtle and mysterious words. Such subtle and mysterious words are hard even for the wisest men to understand. Now, of you set up laws for the masses in such terms as are hard for the wisest men to understand, then the people will find no way to comprehend them. Just as men who find not even coarse rice to fill them would not think of wine and meat, and just as those who have not even rags to wear would not think of silk and embroidered garments, in governing the world, if one is not able to settle affairs of the most urgent need, one should pay no attention to things short of great urgency. Now most of the affairs to be administered are ordinary civil cases. Yet not to use standards that ordinary men and women plainly understand, but to long for those theories which even the wisest do not comprehend; that certainly is the negation of government. Therefore subtle and mysterious words are no business of the people.
Indeed, men who regard
v. Work
VII.
In these days, the lord of men, as regards speeches, is delighted
at their eloquence but does not seek for their consequences,
Now the people within the boundary all talk about political order,
and, though in every family there are men who preserve copies of the
Laws of Shang Yang and Kuan Chung, yet the state is
becoming poorer and poorer. This is because many talk about tillage but few
take up the plough. Again, Books of Sun Wu and Wu Ch`i, yet
the army is becoming weaker and weaker. This is because many talk about warfare
but few put on armour.
Therefore, the enlightened sovereign uses his men's strength but does not listen to their words, rewards them for their meritorious services but always eliminates the useless. The people, accordingly, exert themselves to the point of death in obeying the sovereign.
Indeed, tillage requires physical force, and is toil. But the
people who perform it say, "Through it we can become wealthy." Again, warfare,
as a matter of fact, involves risks. But the people who wage it say, "Through
it we can become noble." Now, if those who cultivate refinement and learning
and practise persuasion and eloquence get the fruits of wealth without the toil
of tillage, and gain the honour of nobility with no risk in warfare, then who
will not do the same? Naturally, one hundred men will attend to "wisdom" while
Therefore, in the state of the enlightened sovereign there is no literature written on bamboo slips, but the law is the only teaching; there are no quoted sayings of the early kings, but the magistrates are the only instructors; there is no valour through private swords, but slaughter of the enemy is the only courageous deed. As a result, the people, within the boundary, when practising persuasion and eloquence, always conform to the law; when up and doing, they always aim at meritorious services; and when pretending to valour, they always exert themselves in the army. Therefore, in time of peace the state is rich; in time of emergency the army is strong. Such is what they call the resources of the ruler. Having stored up the resources of the ruler, the sovereign waits for the enemy state to reach an unguarded moment. Those who have surpassed the Five Emperors and have rivalled the Three Kings, have always followed this method.
The same is not true in these days, however. Inside, the gentry
and the commoners do as they please; outside, eloquent speakers create their
own favourable circumstances. If both foreign and home affairs alike are bad,
is it not dangerous for the ruler to confront strong enemies? It is so
particularly because the ministers who speak on foreign affairs either side
with the advocates of the Perpendicular Union or the Horizontal Alliance, or
have personal hatred for foreign states and want to utilize the forces of the
native state. Now, neither the Perpendicular Union aiming to attack a single
strong state by uniting all the weak ones, nor the
Now, ministers who speak about the Horizontal Alliance, all say:
"If we do not serve a big power, we will have enemies and suffer disasters." To
serve a big power, however, always
Again, ministers who speak about the Perpendicular Union, all say:
"If we do not save small states and attack big powers, we will lose the favour
of All-under-Heaven. If we lose the favour of All-under-Heaven, our state will
fall into peril. If our state falls into peril, our lord will fall into
contempt." To save small states, however, always
For this reason, he who insists on serving the strong state really means to hold his office through foreign influence; he who insists on saving the small state, really means to seek advantage abroad by virtue of his prestige at home. Before the state is benefited, the ministers have got estates and high emoluments. Thus, though the sovereign falls into contempt, the ministers are honoured; though the land of the state is cut off, their own families have become wealthy. If their projects succeed, they will become mighty in authority; if their projects fail, they will retire from active life with riches in their pockets.
However, such is the usual way the Lord of Men listens to the
proposals of his ministers that before their projects are successful, their
ranks and bounties are already exalted. And, if they are not punished when
their projects fail, who can be sure that the itinerant gentlemen are not going
to display their irresponsible sophistries elsewhere and count on
The itinerants all say, "Success in foreign relations at its
There is a common saying: "Wearers of long sleeves are skilful in dancing; possessors of much money are skilful in trading." It means that people who are resourceful acquire skill very easily. Accordingly, in the state that is orderly and strong it is easy to devise schemes, but in the state that is weak and chaotic it is hard to make any plan at all. For illustration, the schemes adopted by Ch`in, though changed ten times, rarely fail; whereas any plan adopted by Yen, once changed, rarely succeeds. Not that whatever Ch`in adopts is always clever and whatever Yen adopts is always stupid, but that the factors of order and chaos are different.
Thus, Chou quit Ch`in and joined the Perpendicular Union only to
be taken within a year; and Wei left Wey for the Horizontal Alliance only to be
ruined in half a year. This means that Chou was destroyed by the Perpendicular
Union while Wei was ruined by the Horizontal Alliance. Supposing Chou and Wei
postponed their plans to join the
The plan of the people for themselves
Indeed, the enlightened king so administers his state as to
diminish the number of tradesmen, craftsmen, and idlers, and to lower their
names in order to incline their minds to primary callings and to lessen their
interest in secondary occupations.
For such reasons, it is a common trait of the disorderly state
that its learned men adore the ways of the early kings by pretending to
benevolence and righteousness and adorn their manners and clothes and gild
their eloquent speeches so as to cast doubts on the law of the present age and
thereby beguile the mind of the lord of men; that its itinerant speakers
In the present age, the celebrities for learning are the Literati and the Mohists. The highest figure of the Literati was K`ung Ch`iu; the highest figure of the Mohists was Mo Ti. Since the death of Confucius, there have appeared the School of Tzŭ-chang, the School of Tzŭ-ssŭ, the School of the Yen Clan, the School of the Mêng Clan, the School of the Ch`i-tiao Clan, the School of the Chung Liang Clan, the School of the Sun Clan, and the School of the Yo-chêng Clan. Since the death of Mo Tzŭ, there have appeared the Mohists of the Hsiang-li Clan, the Mohists of the Hsiang-fu Clan, and the Mohists of Têng Ling's School. Thus, after Confucius and Mo Tzŭ, the Literati have divided into eight schools and the Mohists into three. In what they accept and what they reject they are contrary to and different from one another but each claims to be orthodox Confucian or Mohist. Now that Confucius and Mo Tzŭ cannot come to life again, who can determine the orthodoxy of learned men?
Confucius and Mo Tzŭ both followed Yao and Shun; they
differed in matters of acceptance and rejection, yet each claimed to be the
true Yao and Shun. Now that Yao and Shun cannot come to life again, who is
going to determine genuineness as between the Literati and the Mohists? For our
people, who have passed through the time of Yü and
The Mohists, for funeral rites wear winter clothes in winter days
and summer clothes in summer days, make coffins three inches thick of Paulownia
wood, and observe only three months' mourning. Regarding this as restraint,
sovereigns of this age respect them. The Literati, on the contrary, for funeral
rites break up the household property and give sons in pawn to compensate for
the losses,
Royal Readings.
According to the theory of Ch`i-tiao,
Inasmuch as stupid and deceptive studies and heretical and
contradictory theories are in conflict while the lords of men tolerate them
equally, the gentry within the seas have neither definite forms of speech nor
constant standards of conduct. Indeed, ice and charcoal do not share the same
vessel and last long; winter and summer do not come at the same time. Likewise,
heretical and contradictory studies do not stand together and have peace. Now
that heretical studies are equally listened to and contradictory theories are
absurdly acted upon, how can there be other than chaos? If the ruler
The learned gentlemen of the present age, when they speak on political order, mostly say: "Give the poor and the destitute land and thereby provide men of no property with enough." However, if there are men who were originally the same as others but have independently become able to be perfectly self-supporting, even without prosperous years or other income, it must be due to their diligence or to their frugality. Again, if there are men who were originally the same as others but have independently become poor and destitute without suffering from any misfortune of famine and drought or illness and malignancy or calamity and lawsuit, it must be due to their extravagance or to their laziness. Extravagant and lazy persons are poor; diligent and frugal persons are rich. Now, if the superior levies money from the rich in order to distribute alms among the poor, it means that he robs the diligent and frugal and rewards the extravagant and lazy. Naturally it is impossible to force people to speed up their work and also restrain their expenditure.
Now suppose there is a man, who, holding fast to his
Suppose you keep a number of books, practise the art of speaking, gather a band of pupils, indulge in culture and learning, and discuss theories, then be sure sovereigns of this age will respect you therefor, saying, "To respect worthies is the way of the early kings." Indeed, those who are taxed by the magistrates are farmers while those who are fed by the superior are learned gentlemen. Being farmers, the former are more heavily taxed; being learned gentlemen, the latter are more liberally rewarded. Hence it is impossible to force the people to work hard and talk little.
Again, suppose you build a standard of estimation, blend all
clever principles,
Further, the lord of men, in listening to a learned man, if he
approves his words, should officially put them into practice
T`an-t`ai Tzŭ-yü had the manners of a gentleman.
b.c.b.c.
Indeed, if only the heated and hammered tin
Therefore, as to the subordinates of the intelligent sovereign, prime ministers must have arisen from among the district-magistrates and gallant generals must have emerged from among the squads of soldiers. If persons who have rendered meritorious services are always rewarded, then the greater ranks and bounties become the better encouraged they will be. Again, if offices are elevated and ranks are raised, then the greater the official responsibilities become the more they will promote political order. Indeed, according as ranks and bounties are raised official responsibilities promote political order, this is the royal road to supremacy.
The possessor of a thousand li of rocky land, can not be called
rich; the possessor of a million puppets can not be called strong. Not because
the rocks are not big and the puppets
For such reasons, in the cases of the princes and kings of enemy
states, though they are delighted at our righteousness, we can not lay them
under tribute as vassals
v. Geschiches
der alten chinesischen Philosophis, p. 476).v. Ibid.). ###
literally means "birds" but in this case it connotes both birds and animals.
"The Board of Ceremonies" in the Rites of Chou says:
"For the classification of different vassals different birds and animals were
used to make six kinds of presents to the superior. The feudal lords bring fur
robes, the nobles kid skin, the high officers wild-geese, the gentry pheasants,
the commoners ducks, and the craftsmen and salesmen fowls." Again, there is a
passage in the Book of the Warring States as follows:
"Men became vassals, women concubines, all bringing birds and following the
coachmen on the way."
Indeed, the strictly kept household sees no fierce servants, but a compassionate mother has spoilt children. From this I know that authority and position are able to suppress violence, but that virtue and favour are not sufficient to stop disorder.
Indeed, the sage, in ruling the state, does not count on people's
doing him good, but utilizes their inability to do him wrong. If he counts on
people's doing him good, within the boundary there will never be enough such
persons to count by tens. But if he utilizes people's inability to do him
wrong, an entire state can be uniformed.
Op. cit., p. 478). According to Ku Kuang-ts`ê
the last three characters ### should be ### which is the subject of the
following sentence ###.
Similarly, if one should always count on arrows which are straight
of themselves, there would be no arrow in a hundred generations; if one should
only count on pieces of wood which are round of themselves, there would be no
wheel in a thousand generations. Though in a hundred generations there is
neither an arrow that is straight of itself nor a wheel that is round of
itself, yet how is it then that people of every generation ride in carts and
shoot birds? It is because the tools for straightening and bending are used. To
rely not on the tools for straightening and bending
Now supposing some one addressed a person, saying, "I will make
you to be wise and to live long," the world would certainly think he was
practising deception.
Now, witches and priests, in praying for somebody, all say, "May
your age last as long as one thousand autumns and ten thousand years." Then the
sounds, "one thousand autumns and ten thousand years", echo through the ears.
As a matter of fact, however, nobody ever testifies to the addition of a single
day to his age. That is the reason why people despise witches and priests.
Likewise, the literati of the present age, when they counsel the lord of men,
instead of speaking about methods to attain political order at present, talk
about the achievement of political order in the past. They neither study
affairs pertaining to regulations for the officials nor observe the conditions
of the wicked and the villainous, but all speak on the reputed glories of
remote antiquity and on
Men of today who do not know the right way to political order, all
say, "Win the hearts of the people." If they should think of winning the hearts
of the people and thereby attaining political order, then even Yi Yin and Kuan
Chung would find no use for their statesmanship and the superior would listen
to the people only. The intelligence of the people, however, can not be
depended upon just like the mind of the baby. If the baby does not have his
head shaved, the ache will recur
Now, the superior urges the tillage of rice fields and the
cultivation of grassy lands in order to increase the
Indeed, the superior seeks for saintly and well-informed men,
because the intelligence of the people is not adequate for use as directive.
For instance, of old, Yü opened the Kiang
All-under-Heaven
approve the Tao of filial piety, fraternal respect, loyalty, and obedience, but
never carefully
As everybody approves the Tao of Yao and Shun and conforms to it,
there are murderers of rulers and rebels against fathers. Yao, Shun, T`ang, and
Wu, each in his turn, acted contrary to the right relationship of ruler and
minister, and the moral of the subsequent generations has consequently been
upset. Yao, while ruler of men, made a minister his ruler. Shun, while
ministering to a ruler, made the ruler a minister. T`ang and Wu, while
ministering to rulers, murdered the sovereigns and dismembered their bodies.
Yet
Indeed, the so-called intelligent ruler is one who is able to keep
his ministers in his service; the so-called worthy minister is one who is able
to make laws and crimes clear and attend to his official duties so as to
support his master. Now, Yao, assuming himself to be enlightened, could not
keep Shun in his service; Shun, assuming himself to be worthy, could not
continue supporting Yao; and T`ang and Wu, assuming themselves to be righteous,
murdered their masters and superiors. That was the way "enlightened"
Thy servant has heard, "Minister serving ruler, son serving
father, and wife serving husband, if these three relationships run in harmony,
All-under-Heaven will have order; if these three relationships run in discord,
All-under-Heaven will have disorder." If this is an immutable principle of the
world, which neither the intelligent king nor the worthy minister dares to
depart from, then even though the lord of men might be unworthy, no minister
would dare to infringe his prerogative. In these days, however, the exaltation
of the worthy, the appointment of the wise, and the lack of a constant
principle, all follow the wrong way; but
The ancient Records says: "Shun, when he
saw his father, Ku-sou, looked uneasy".
v. Works of
Mencius, Bk, V, Pt. I.
However, thy servant would say, "Confucius in the first place did
not understand the Tao of filial piety, fraternal respect, loyalty, and
obedience." By that remark did he mean that a follower of the true path, when
in the court, could not be a minister to the sovereign,
They say the loyal minister never endangers his ruler and the
dutiful son never disowns his parents. Now, Shun, by pretending to worthiness,
took the ruler's state; T`ang and Wu, by pretending to righteousness, dethroned
and murdered their rulers. Though all these people endangered their sovereigns
by pretending to worthiness, yet
The heroes of antiquity, when in public, would never minister to
any ruler, and, when in private, would never serve their families. By so doing,
they disowned their rulers in public and their parents in private. Moreover, to
minister to no ruler when active in public and serve no family when retired in
private, is the road to world-confusion and
Ku-sou was Shun's father but Shun exiled him; Hsiang was Shun's
brother but Shun
b.c.Book of Poetry:
As against the principle of this poem, Shun in public
made his ruler a minister, and in private made his father a
For the same reason, every hero in private never did his family
any good; disturbing the world and exterminating his posterity, and in public
attempting to oppose the ruler
Similarly, whoever is a hero in this age, acts contrary to the
masses,
v.
Lao Tzŭ's Tao Tah Ching, Ch. XXXI, "Quelling
War."v.
Ibid., Ch. XXI, "Emptying the Heart."
A dutiful son, in serving his father, never fights with his brothers for the father's household; a loyal minister, in serving the ruler, never struggles with other ministers for the ruler's state. Indeed, if a son always praises other people's parents, saying, for instance, "The parents of Mr. So and So go to bed late at night and get up early in the morning and work hard to make money and thereby support their children and grandchildren and keep so many men and women servants," he is a defamer of his parents. Similarly, if a minister always praises the early kings for the greatness of their virtues and longs after them, he is a defamer of his ruler. Now, one who defames his parents is called undutiful; whereas one who defames his ruler, the world considers worthy. This is the reason why there is chaos.
Therefore, the minister who neither extols the worthiness of Yao and Shun, nor admires the achievement of T`ang and Wu, nor speaks well of the nobleness of the ancient heroes, but applies all his strength to observing the law and devotes his mind to serving the sovereign, is a loyal minister, indeed.
In antiquity the black headed
b.c., the 26th
year of the Initiating Emperor of Ch`in, that the Emperor began calling the
people "the black-headed"—twelve years after Han Fei Tzŭ's death (233
b.c.). Granting this work to be genuine, the term
must have been inserted posthumously by the author's followers.
However, people of this age all say: "As Hsü Yu declined the rule
over All-under-Heaven, mere reward would not be sufficient to encourage
worthies. As Robber Chê purposely transgressed the penal law and bravely
underwent the
The highest
For that reason, most men of this age never speak of the law of
the state but advocate the Perpendicular Union or the Horizontal Alliance. The
advocates of the Union
The reason why the
lord of men finds himself endangered and sees his state ruined is that chief
vassals are too influential and the attendants are too rampant. Who is called
powerful, observes no law but simply acts at random and manipulates the handles
of the state for facilitating his self-seeking purposes. Who is called rampant,
exercises all undue powers
Indeed, the horse can carry a heavy load, pull the wagon, and make a distant trip, because of its muscular strength; the sovereign of ten thousand chariots and the ruler of one thousand chariots can rule over the world and subdue the feudal lords, because of their prestige and position. Thus, prestige and position are the muscular strength of the lord of men. Now suppose chief vassals gain the sovereign's prestige and attendants abuse the august position. Then the lord of men will lose his strength. The lord of men who has lost his strength and is still able to keep the state, is none out of a thousand.
The tiger and the leopard can overcome men and catch the hundred
beasts
Today, the tactless sovereigns all know very well the errors of the Ruler of Sung and Duke Chien, but never comprehend their own mistakes. For they never observe closely the similarities between things.
Moreover, upholders of law and tact and the authorities in power are incompatible with each other. How can this be proved? Well, if the sovereign has upholders of tact around, then chief vassals will not be able to control matters of decision and the courtiers will not dare to abuse their privileges. Once the power and influence of the chief vassals and attendants stop, the Tao of the lord of men will become illustrious.
The same is not so in these days. The ministers in power arrogate
favourable positions and manage the state affairs at random in order to further
For such reasons, unless the ruler of men can reject the chief vassals' counsels, oppose the attendants' opinions, and conform independently to reasonable theories, how can the upholders of law and tact venture their lives in presenting their ideas to the Throne? This is the reason why the present age is not orderly.
The intelligent sovereign confers ranks and bounties according to
merits and assigns offices and tasks in
Now the courtiers are not necessarily wise. Yet, if the lord of
men in his personnel administration first considers
Of old, Kuan Lung-p`êng admonished Chieh but had his four limbs
injured; Prince Pi-kan remonstrated with Chow but had his heart cut open; and
Tzŭ-hsü was loyal and b.c. accorded Wu Tzŭ-hsü for
suicide.
In these days, if the lord of men does not want to engage
upholders of law and tact but listens only to stupid and
If orders are made trim, laws
never deviate;
The Book of
Lord Shang has ### in place of ###.
Govern by penalties;
The Book of Lord Shang Duyvendak made no distinction
between ### and ###. Generally speaking, ### refers to the implements of
punishment while ### refers to the act of applying penal implements.
If the people have a surplus of food, make them receive rank by
giving grain to the state. If only through their own effort they can receive
rank,
If a tube three inches long has no bottom, it can never be filled. Conferring office and rank or granting profit and bounty without reference to merit, is like a tube having no bottom.
If the state confers office and bestows rank, it can be said to
devise plans with complete
The Book of Lord
Shang.
The affairs of the government, however small, should never be
abandoned. For instance, office and rank are always obtained according to the
acquired merit; though there may be flattering words, it will be impossible
thereby to make any interference in the state affairs. This is said to be
"government by figures."
If the ability of the official is equal to his post,
Supra, p. 269 et. seq.) and rectified
with it as was done by Ku Kuang-ts`ê. According to Ku ### below ### is
superfluous.
If penalties are heavy and rewards are few, it means that the superior loves the people, wherefore the people will die for rewards. If rewards are many and penalties are light, it means that the superior does not love the people, wherefore the people will never die for rewards.
If the profit issues from one outlet
In inflicting penalties light offences ahould be punished
severely; if light offences do not appear, heavy offences will not come. This
is said to be to abolish penalties by means of penalties. And the state will
certainly become strong.
The sage in governing the people considers their springs
of action, never tolerates their wicked desires, but seeks only for the
people's benefit. Therefore, the penalty he inflicts is not due to any hatred
for the people but to his motive of loving the people. If penalty triumphs, the
people are quiet; if reward over-flows, culprits appear. Therefore the triumph
of penalty is the beginning of order; the overflow of reward, the origin of
chaos.
Indeed, it is the people's nature to delight in disorder and detach themselves from legal restraints. Therefore, when the intelligent sovereign governs the state, if he makes rewards clear, the people will be encouraged to render meritorious services; if he makes penalties severe, the people will attach themselves to the law. If they are encouraged to render meritorious services, public affairs will not be obstructed; if they attach themselves to the law, culprits will not appear. Therefore, he who governs the people should nip the evil in the bud; he who commands troops, should inculcate warfare in the people's mind. If prohibitions can uproot causes of villainy, there will always be order; if soldiers can imagine warfare in mind, there will always be victory. When the sage is governing the people, he attains order first, wherefore he is strong; he prepares for war first, wherefore he wins.
Indeed, the administration of the state affairs requires the
attention to the causes of human action so as to unify the people's mental
trends; the exclusive elevation of public welfare so as to stop self-seeking
elements; the reward for denunciation of crime so as to suppress culprits; and
finally the clarification of laws so as to facilitate governmental
Indeed, it is the people's nature to abhor toil and enjoy ease.
However, if they pursue ease, the land will waste; if the land wastes, the
state will not be in order. If the state is not orderly, it will become
chaotic. If reward and penalty
Therefore, the way to supremacy
Therefore, the worthy ruler in governing the state follows
In general,
Indeed, if the state is orderly, the people are safe; if affairs
are confused, the country falls into peril. Who makes laws strict, hits on the
true nature of mankind; who makes prohibitions lenient, misses the apparent
fact. Moreover, everybody is, indeed, gifted with desperate courage. To exert
desperate courage to get what one wants, is human nature. Yet everybody's likes
and dislikes should be regulated by the superior. Now the people like to have
profit and bounty and hate to be punished, if the superior catches their likes
and dislikes and thereby holds their desperate courage under control, he will
not
However, if prohibitions are lenient and facts are missed, reward
and penalty will be misused. Again, when governing the people, if you do not
regard
Who governs the state, should always uphold the law. In life there are ups and downs. If any ruler goes down, it is because in regulating rewards and penalties he makes no distinction between different degrees. Who governs the state, always distinguishes between reward and punishment. Therefore, some people might regard the distinction between reward and punishment as distinction, which should not be called distinction in the strict sense.
As regards the distinction made by the clear-sighted ruler, it is
the distinction between different grades of reward and of punishment.
Therefore, his subjects respect laws and fear prohibitions. They try to avoid
crime rather than dare to expect any reward. Hence the saying: "Without
For this reason, the state at the height of order is able to take the suppression of villainy for its duty. Why? Because its law comprehends human nature and accords with the principles of government.
If so, how to get rid of delicate villainy? By making the people
watch
Indeed, the most enlightened method of governing a state is to trust measures and not men. For this reason, the tactful state is never mistaken if it does not trust the empty fame of men. If the land within the boundary is always in order it is because measures are employed. If any falling state lets foreign soldiers walk all over its territory and can neither resist nor prevent them, it is because that state trusts men and uses no measures. Men may jeopardize their own country, but measures can invade others' countries. Therefore, the tactful state spurns words and trusts laws.
Broadly speaking, it is hard to uncover a crooked merit that
appears to fulfil the promise; it is hard to disclose the feature
For such reasons, false scholars establish names inside, while
itinerants devise plans outside, till the stupid and the coward mix themselves
with the brave and the clever. Inasmuch as the false path is customary, they
are tolerated by their age. Therefore, their law does not work and their
penalty affects nobody. If so, both reward and penalty have to be
double-dealings.
Therefore,
passimAncient Chinese Political
Theories, I, xxiiiBook of Chou, I, 230, 237, 246Book of Lord Shang, I,
xiii, xxiii, n. passim. II passimBook of Poetry, ### I,
233; II, 30 passim, 91-2et
seq.Brief History of Early Chinese
Philosophy (Suzuki), I, xxivpassimLa Chine Antique (Maspero), I,
xxiiiChou, Records of, II, 229Chou, Rites of, II, 306passimpassimet. seq.Development of the Logical
Method in Ancient China, I, xxiiet
seq. yin-yang), II,
168et
seq.Geschichte der Alten
Chinesischen Philosophie (Forke), I, xxiiiGeschichte der
Philosophie (et seq.Historical Records, I, xxvii, 25
ffHistory of Chinese
Philosophy (Fung Y. L.), I, xxiv, xxviiHistory of Chinese Political
Thought During the Early Tsin Period (Chen, L. T.), I,
xxiiiet
seq.et seq.et seq.et seq.Li Ki (Li Chi),
II, 32 passimpassimpassimpassimet seq.Principles of Translation
(Tytler), I, xivet seq.et.
seq.Records, Ancient (or Shih Chi), I passim, II, 222,
225Records of Chou, II, 229passimRites of Chou, II, 306Book of Lord Shang)et
seq.Shih Chi or Ancient
(Historical) Records, II, 222, 225Spring and Autumn Annals
###, I, 132, 149; II, 86, 92Sun Wu Ping Fa (on the
art of war), II, 290T`ai-p`ing Yü-lan, I, xxxvT`ang Shu I Wên Chih, I,
xxxvet
passim; II, 230, 246 279passimet seq.passimet
seq.et
seq.